Public Management

Functions
LECTURER : MS T B OB

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 Introduction
The critical Skills for Public managers:

• Competent

• Knowledgeable

• Creative

• Management skills

• Utilise more with less

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 Basic management functions
Planning

Organising

Leading

Controlling

Co-ordinating

Public management and policy

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 Planning
Planning hierarchy
This consists of the top management; middle management and junior management/supervisors

There are important differences in planning between various levels of management such as:

• The amount of planning; The time spent on planning; The significance and complexity of planning
Components of planning hierarchy Level of management
and The periods planned forVision
(planning horizons).
and strategic objectives Top
Top layer strategies Top
Departmental policy aspects Top
Procedures and standards Top/middle
Portfolios and programmes Top/middle
Budgets Middle/junior
Daily/weekly planning Junior

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Advantages of Planning

Planning promotes co-operation between the various branches, sections and individuals in an institution. If
objectives are formulated clearly and suitable plans are prepared, tasks and resources can be allocated so
that everyone can contribute effectively to the achievement of the objectives.

Planning gives direction to an institution

Planning is a framework to anticipate future circumstances. This eliminates crisis management, since
management has to consider potential threats in the environment and take steps in good time to avert them.

Planning helps in eliminating isolation decisions

Constant change in macro and micro-environments demands planning.

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 Barriers to planning

Limited access to accurate and relevant information, as well as lack of resources

Human factors

Ineffective organizational policies, systems, processes and procedures

Management attitude towards planning

Requirements of overcoming barriers to effective planning:

Accurate information, reliable and relevant

Planning must start long before implementation

Planning must always start at top management level

Planning must be within the framework of the main objectives and policies of the institution

Planning procedures should be systematic

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Basic steps in the planning process

 Step 1: Analyze circumstances and be aware of opportunities: Preparing and project possible opportunities.
Includes looking at SWOT analysis on a yearly basis of financial year

Step 2: Formulate an objective or a number of objectives: describe what needs to be achieved and how it
needs to be achieved by when. Divide objectives into primary and secondary or strategic or operational
objectives. Use the SMART tool.

 Step 3: Define the current situation: scan the environment (internal and external) and look at current
position of the department as compared to where it needs to go. Discover the available information at hand
and any other sources of information needed.

Step 4: Identify aids for and barriers to planning: identifying any possible obstacles and tools that will hinder
the success of the planning. These include factors that will lead to achieve objectives and those to prevent
attaining objectives
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Step 5: Make alternatives plans of action: create a list of alternatives so that when one best solution fails, the decision-
makers can select from other existing alternatives at hand.

 Step 6: Evaluate alternative plans of action: This involves testing of the agreed alternatives carefully. To see their
feasibility and strengths and weaknesses should they be chosen for application.

Step 7: Choose the best plan of action: the best choice of action relies on two previous steps if they were done
appropriately.

Step 8: Formulate derivative plans: this includes taking the chosen plan a breaking it into smaller plans in order to
easily allocate duties and to determine short to long terms goals that leads to the overall objectives.

Step 9: Prepare a budget for the plans: this comprises the way public institutions survive based on the availability
and sufficiency of funds. Plans needs to be costed in terms of the equipment, materials, instruments and other
resources in order to operate such plans and be converted into monetary terms or service provisions. Here a financial
plan is considered within the departmental budget

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 Planning aids and techniques
• Gantt charts: is a graph method used in project planning and control. It shows the work to be done and represents
the actual plan and situation. It reflects milestones using timeframes where activities are expected to be completed
based on planning. Used to monitor progress and for reporting.

• Network diagrams: used mainly in complex projects and is divided in TWO (PERT and CPM). PERT is useful in
providing formula to calculate duration of project while CPM reflects possible duration of activities/tasks without
impacting on project completion date.

• Linear programming: Linear programming method is a type of constrained optimization method of project
selection. In this method, you look towards reducing the project cost by efficiently reducing the duration of the
project. You look for running an activity in its normal time or the crash time.

• Breakeven analysis: It is a technique for finding a point at which a project will cover its costs or break even. It is
often used to make an initial decision on whether to proceed with a project. Breakeven analysis is also a technique
of financial control in the sense that further analyses may be necessary as conditions change.
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• Simulations: refers to the imitation of real-world activities and processes by providing an experience as close to the
‘real thing’ as possible. Allows for planners to reset a particular situation and try alternative strategies and approaches.
Simulation allows you to explore ‘what if’ questions and scenarios without having to experiment on the scenario itself.

• Decision-making trees: A decision tree is a flowchart-like diagram that shows the various outcomes from a series of
decisions. It works through all possible response options in a scenario to analyze resulting outcomes. Basically, it is a
visual version of an “if this then that” statement across all possible alternatives.

• Game theory: It’s a tool that is used for analyzing situations in which parties, called players, make decisions that are
interdependent. This interdependence causes each player to consider the other player's possible decisions, or
strategies, in formulating strategy.

• Inventory models: Used when the department wants to source/purchase goods/materials and need to firstly analyze
demand, decide when and how much to order. This is called inventory planning. Effective inventory planning enhances
departmental efforts in forecasting demand while minimizing cost.

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 Organizing
This involves having public officials that knows/understands what, when, how to undertake their duties and if somethings
goes wrong, who to report to.

The structure of the department needs to be very clear and easier to follow in terms of giving staff clear responsibilities,
authority and who to report to or else the overall objectives will be likely not be achieved.

Organizing is DIVIDED into TWO:

MACRO-organizing: that entails a division of government activities into significant working spheres with the aim of
achieving the political objectives of the government/ruling party. For example, having practices in developing executive
institutions like state departments.

MICRO-organizing: involves organizing within the department and a division along with allocation of functions to officials.
Its made up of horizontal division of work; assignment and delegation of authority; coordination; setting channels of
communication and control

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 The components of organizing
1. Division of work: this entails dividing the work of the department so that different people can have different job
descriptions/responsibilities/duties. It is divided into:

 Job specialization--- involves dividing activities into specialists' units and the units again divided into sub-units. This will
allow supervisors at operational level to monitor and control effectively. The units are usually divided into line functions;
generic admin functions; auxiliary functions and personal and instrumental functions.

 Span of control--- refers to number of subordinates that reports to any respected manager/supervisor and its ideal that
between 7-12 people report to 1 manager/supervisor depending on structure or complexity of departmental projects. This
is done to help in reducing management levels and keeping costs low, improve coordination and communication. While
disadvantage is over-work-load that will impact manager’s performance

2. Departmentalization: is the creation of organizational units, like government depts; divisions and sections. It relates to
creating units and grouping activities/services of a certain field/department together (DoE or DoH). Criteria includes
grouping similarity of functions, geographical factors, goods/services offered, client, numbers.

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3. Centralization/decentralization: these two terms are closely related to delegation and ‘centralization’ means everything
possible is done at one central point (functions and powers). Example, a unitary state is not practical because of geographical
extent so branches/regional offices are needed to deliver services, which is ‘decentralization’. So, ‘decentralization’ means
activities and powers are scattered geographically, as the degree of delegation defines the extent of decentralization.

4. Delegation of authority: is described as the yielding of authority by a person in authority to a subordinate so they can act
independently within limits. Meaning, responsibility can be delegated but not liability/accountability. And there must be fixed
procedures for performing functions and clear, formal instructions for delegation, so everyone becomes aware. It's divided into:

- Primary delegation powers---means NG has decentralized its functions to subordinate gvts on basis of geographical factors for
services to be accessible to citizens.

- Secondary delegation powers--- means NG has decentralized its entire functional field to executive institutions for various
reasons. May include delegating executive, admin and operational functions to certain persons to take decisions without
getting prior approval from Parliament, political heads or senior managers

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5. Co-ordination: involves a process of ensuring activities and personnel in govt sector across all spheres do not
overlap and all institutions work together to achieve objectives set by legislation. For it to be effective, the need to be
formal measures that direct fragmentation of activities towards a specific objective/s. Example, at macro-
environment, the spheres of gvt foster intergogvtl relations (their alignment and coordination is critical for effective
governance). At micro-level, public managers co-ordinate all activities of various divisions so that everyone strives to
achieve objective without wasting limited resources

6. Channels of communication: this means the medium through which the sender and receiver of message
communicates with one another. For instance, scope of activities performed in govt sector needs channels to be
created so that communication can occur in an orderly way. Here, guidelines must be allocated to regulate methods of
communications, like reports/reporting by departments

7. Control: it's applied to ensure subordinates given power/authority act within those instructions/powers and meet
customary norms and principles. Ways to do control include, inspections, auditing, performance reports/accounts,
arrangement of hierarchy/structure of dept for easier supervision; report/answering

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 Methods of organizing
Organization charts: are graphical representations that indicate lines of authority in an institution. Must be
explained to subordinates so they be aware of responsible people above them. It’s a top-down management structure.
Advas: clear indication of responsible divisions; clear likes of authority between managers and subordinates; type of
work done is indicated; management levels based on hierarchy.

Line structures: are a form of a hierarchical arrangement in a bureaucracy and used when one have to report to
someone else on specific type of work. Example, one supervisor have many subordinates and a staff reports to one
supervisor. Its part of span of control and the responsible person is usually a specialists in that field and supports
manager with expert advice

Functional organization: it’s a system that takes the line structure to level of specialization and departmentalization.
It entails grouping individuals doing similar activities into specialists' units/sections like HR, Finance, IT etc. Advas:
encourages develpt of expertise; needs internal coordination; categorizes tasks based on skills needed. Disadvas: silo
thinking as units focus on field of specialization; needs more control, coordination etc.

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Divisional organizational structure: is applied at large organization with heterogeneous
environments. Features includes a system whereby functions are divided into areas each with own
divisions. Here each division have its own production, financial and personnel managers that report
to general managers in their areas.

The matrix organizational system: are more complicated than other methods and are used for
institutions that are project-based. They allow staff from different fields of specialization within
institution to come together in multidisciplinary project teams.

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 Leading
 Rue and Byars (2005) and Swanepoel (2006) are of opinion that leadership is an inherent characteristic in
an individual. Others believe that managers can acquire the most essential leadership characteristics during
their professional lives. Some managers are authoritarian leaders, others are more receptive to suggestions
from their personnel and are thus more democratic and participatory. Whatever tyle is used the managers
are the ones who create work environment and determine whether the personnel are happy, productive and
motivated.

Motivation: is generally regarded as the vital component of leadership. Leaders should be able to get
personnel to work together to achieve the objectives pf the institution. Activities must be carried out and
managers as leaders must motivate personnel to act. Thus, means leadership depends largely on a person’s
ability to motivate, influence, guide and communicate with subordinates.

Leaders can use various models of motivation, like McGregor X and Y, Maslow’s Hierarchy of personal needs
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 Integrative approaches to Management
 in addition to motivating staff, there are other approaches that constitute comprehensive and integrative models. This
includes the: expectancy approach; the equity approach and goal-setting approach. The discussion will only focus on
“expectancy approach”:

The basis of this approach is that if people feel that they will be rewarded for work done and that this reward will be
worth it, they will probably work harder. The implications of this approach are:

-It determines the rewards that each worker values. Rewards must therefore be suitable to the individual.

-It determines the performance that management desires. The requirements to be met before rewards are given must
be stipulated clearly

-It makes performance level achievable. Note that motivation for performance will decrease if goals appear to be
unachievable

-It analyses which factors can counteract the effectiveness of the reward and ensures that reward is adequate

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 Leadership as a management function
 The characteristic of leadership is to get people to work together effectively as a team, to inspire their
loyalty towards the group and to make a significant contribution to the achievement of objectives.
Leadership consists of interaction between personalities and circumstances as interpreted by the group
and leader determines how instructions are to be carried out and encourage subordinates to high levels of
performance.
Examples of abilities and traits that can be characteristic of successful leaders:
- Power motive: successful leaders enjoy being in position of power. They try to expand their power, they think
about how they can influence other people’s behavior and they care about their personal status in relation to
those around them
- Achievement motive: they enjoy achieving
- Problem-solving ability: they are resourceful and thrive in situations where they need to solve problems.
- Self-confidence: leaders must be self-confident without being overbearing. This inspires confidence in
subordinates
- Internal locus of control: effective leaders believe that they are the primary cause of what happens to them.
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-Sense of humour: humour helps to relive tension and boredom and reduce hostility in the
workplace.
-Vision: this is particularly important in top managers, since they must visualise where the institution
is going
-Courage: managers need courage in situations where it may be necessary to express ideas that
deviate from the norm.
The three elements in the work situation that determine which style of leadership will be
effective
1. Leader-subordinate relationship: if there is a relationship of trust between the leader and
subordinates, the manager could adopt a lenient attitude.
2. Task structuring: this refers to the degree to which a task is assigned properly with accompanying
instructions
3. The leader’s position of power: the more authority a leader has, the better his/her chance of
influencing subordinates

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 Control
 Once planning is done, the employees know what to do and how to do it and they have the necessary
support and motivation, a system is needed that will enable management to determine whether the work is
progressing as planned. This system is known as control.

Importance of control
- Reasons for the implementation of effective control systems are:

oThey lead to standardized actions to increase efficiency

oThey evaluate top management’s efficiency in planning

oThey help to prevent malpractices and waste.

oThey encourage delegation, as subordinates to whom authority is delegated can be monitored better/

oThey lead to the performance appraisal of all employees

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 Types of control
 Pre-action control: foresees potential problems and tries to solve them before they occur. Appropriate
departmental policies, procedures and standards may be necessary to eliminate common problems

Simultaneous control: is applied while a functional activity or project is being implemented. It could take
place in an office where supervisors may be expected to check work at intervals. The purpose is to prevent
costs from escalating owing to errors, by identifying and solving problems in good time.

Post-action control: is exercised only once the whole process or project has been completed. Although the
whole process can be controlled in one action, this however means that is a problem is found to exist, it may
be even greater than if it had been discovered earlier on, and it may be more expensive to solve. Summative
evaluation is conducted at end of process or project to determine the extent to which objectives have been
met.

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 Steps in the Control process
1. Set performance standards: standards be expressed quantifiably in terms of productivity, effectiveness
and cost-effectiveness, wherever practical. The objectives should be acceptable to those who are
expected to produce the results and those who expect the results. Most standards at junior, middle and
top management level are linked with cost control.
2. Measure actual performance: when work starts, the actual results must be monitored. The information
can be obtained from duty sheets, logically with institution’s objectives and focus on critical points to
contribute to achievement of institution objectives.
3. Compare actual performance with standards: comparisons are made, and deviations calculated to
determine whether the process is under control and if not, the extent to which it is not. The income
statements prepared in the form of management reports include columns for budgeted (forecast) results,
actual results and deviations.
4. Take corrective action: after the above examination, corrective action can be taken, if necessary, to
rectify any deviation from the original plan. Corrective action can also mean an alteration to the original
plan, although this is done only if the original plan or standards were clearly incorrect

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 Design of a control system
 Public managers are often expected to design new methods for controlling existing and established
systems and processes in order to apply value to control as a management function. The broad guidelines:
1. Define the desired results: unquantifiable requirements do not promote control. Before a control system
is designed to achieve specific objectives, a decision must be made on specific, quantifiable
requirements
2. Determine predictors of results: its useful to know beyond all doubt when you are succeeding. Its not
enough to rely merely on instinct. Early warning signs are needed to determine which events signify
improvements or a worsening situation. Early warning signs may include limited access to required
resources and materials, progress reports which indicate that the project is running over budget ad
changes in conditions.

3. Set standards: its expected that departments set standards for predictors and results. This includes using
performance indicators and measurement metrics for certain processes. Management should receive
regular progress or status reports including financial statements, performance reports and project
reports to enable them to determine progress.

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 Steps in the Control process
1. Set performance standards: standards be expressed quantifiably in terms of productivity, effectiveness
and cost-effectiveness, wherever practical. The objectives should be acceptable to those who are
expected to produce the results and those who expect the results. Most standards at junior, middle and
top management level are linked with cost control.
2. Measure actual performance: when work starts, the actual results must be monitored. The information
can be obtained from duty sheets, logically with institution’s objectives and focus on critical points to
contribute to achievement of institution objectives.
3. Compare actual performance with standards: comparisons are made, and deviations calculated to
determine whether the process is under control and if not, the extent to which it is not. The income
statements prepared in the form of management reports include columns for budgeted (forecast) results,
actual results and deviations.
4. Take corrective action: after the above examination, corrective action can be taken, if necessary, to
rectify any deviation from the original plan. Corrective action can also mean an alteration to the original
plan, although this is done only if the original plan or standards were clearly incorrect

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 KPA’s and strategic control points
 As part of an effective control system, KPAs and strategic control points are vital and most critical points or
areas identified are priorities above other control points and are monitored more extensively. Strategic
control points are specific points measured within key performance areas and are used as critical indications
of the overall state of the process. This may include:
- Physical standards, e.g., units per hour; Cost standards, e.g., cost per unit/hour; Capital standards, e.g.,
income and balance sheets; Income standards, e.g., income per service rendered; Programme standards, e.g.,
criteria like relevance and strategic significance.

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 Coordination
 As government institutions grow and services expand, their organisational and departmental structures also grow.
The management of each department must make a concerted effort to ensure that their functions form an integral
and interdependent segment of government as a whole.
The activities of all government institutions should thus be coordinated to satisfy national priorities.
Intergovernmental relations, play a vital coordinating role, since they keep the various public institutions in contact
with one another. Overall objectives and programmes to address this are coordinated.
Similarly, managers of branches, sections or units within government departments must also ensure that respective
staff functions are well aligned and synchronized. Co-ordination is vital for this. The plans, objectives and activities
of the division or department must coincide with those of other divisions so that objectives are achieved jointly.
Factors impending on co-ordination
- Low employee morale with poor motivation (especially in current uncertain political climate)
- Lack of cooperation and poor relations between individuals, divisions/departments
- Exaggerated importance/urgency associated with one task which could mean people/depts focus on task completion
and prioritize tasks/activities.
- Poor planning and ineffective communication
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 Approaches to achieving effective co-ordination
 there are three main approaches to achieving effective co-ordination:
1. The basic management approach: managerial hierarchy refers to chain of command in institution.
Relationships between people should be defined so that acceptable channel of communication is clear.
Rules and procedures are used to dela with less important activities that regularly emerge in management of
division to deal with these minor activities and enables sub-ordinates to make decisions on their own. Plans
and objectives also achieve coordination by ensuring that all units direct their efforts at same main
objectives.
2. Increasing the potential for co-ordination: information systems are used to convey information between
higher and lower levels within departments and can therefore improve co-ordination. A thorough knowledge
of internal processes and external variables is vital for making management decisions. Management
information leads to better internal communication, which in turn leads to better co-ordination and other
factors that increase to coordination are lateral relationships and direct contact between people.
3. Reducing the need for co-ordination: if methods mentioned in previous points fail to establish the required
integration, management measures can be implemented to reduce the need to co-ordinate the activities of
department. Meaning, functions are regulated in manner they can require less co-ordination. E.g., functions
done on centralized basis or are divided into smaller parts so fewer functions can be coordinated.

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 Policy function of public managers
 Policies provide a framework for performing management functions and public managers play a major role in
making, implementing, changing and adapting departmental policy. As such role of public managers in public
policy deserves special mention.
Basic elements of public policy
Public policy is policy developed by government role-players, although non-government role-players like interest
groups, can also influence formulation and development of policy
Public policy is a purposive/goal orientated action rather than a random one and decisions are taken jointly by
politicians and officials. It is what government do, e.g., protect environment.
Levels of policy
oPolitical/national policy: this is broad directive policy and is made by legislative authority
oExecutive policy: the broad directive policy is spelled out in more concrete terms by decisions relating to,
organizing, financing and personnel. It's made by executive authority
oAdministrative policy: deals with practical steps to execute a policy and is made by directors-general
oOperational policy: routine decisions are made on daily activities. Middle management and supervisors make it
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 Policy initiators and role of public managers
 There are three levels at which policy is initiated:
1. Ministerial initiative: it’s the most common way which policy is initiated is when, after party political dynamics,
a Minister tables a policy proposal. Public managers should advise Ministers and make recommendations on
desirability, implementation problems and possible political implications of proposed policy.
2. Public management initiative: policy is initiated through public managers who initiate policy independently as
result of problems arising from work situation. Here, managers are directly involved and play direct role in policy
implemented.
3. Society initiative: policy can be initiated through interest/pressure groups in the broader society. Role of
manager is to involve all role-players from society and encourage public participation in policy-making process.
Should undertake needs analyses in communities to improve general welfare.
Challenges to public managers in initiating policy: include managers manipulating information to coincide with
personal convictions and value judgements and thus convey information selectively. Can change/adjust direction
of public policy in this way. Possibility of conflict in communication role managers play, notable, in identifying
community needs and desires. Also, due to diversity, socio-political composition of society, little agreement about
what is best for community is attained.

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 Implementation of policy
 Public managers play a vital role in policy implementation. Here we will differentiate between national and
operational policy. “National policy” is policy made by legislative authority and devolve to administrative
policy level. Public managers should formulate operational or organisational policies within framework of
national policy.
 “Operational policy” is a policy formulated in the framework of this higher-order-policy by head of each
management unit so that activities in each unit/division are done smoothly. Process also entails formulating
objectives, planning and programming. The latter entails carrying out plans. Managers therefore determine
what must be done, when, by whom and how.
Policy Analysis and Adjustments
Although policy is cyclical, its analysis and evaluation can be regarded as final stage in policy-making
process. Constant analysis takes place to evaluate desirability of policy in changing situations and
adjustments should be made.
Costs and advantages of policy proposals be evaluated on ongoing basis since effectiveness can be assessed.
Measure of policy impact in terms of its influence on target situation/group; future and urgent situations;
direct costs in terms of all inputs(time, finance etc.); indirect costs (loss of opportunity to tackle other
projects).
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