Manufacturing Processes

Unit 4

Welding Processes

By
Dr. Ajay Chavan
 Syllabus of Unit
 Classification of joining processes, Welding terminology
and types of joints
 Arc Welding Processes: Principles and equipment's of
Single carbon arc welding, FCAW, TIG, MIG, SAW
 Resistance Welding: Spot, Seam and Projection weld
process, Heat balance in resistance welding
 Gas Welding and Cutting, Soldering, brazing and braze
welding
 Welding Metallurgy and Heat Affected Zone, Weld
inspection, Defects in various joints and their remedies
 Introduction
 Joining processes are used for joining metal parts and in general fabrication work.
 Such requirements are generally occur when large/lengthy sections are required in the
structure.

 For example, a simple ballpoint pen an assembly composed of three single parts, a plastic tube and two
caps, and one subassembly, a cartridge.

 The cartridge itself can be considered as an assembly of few more single parts, in which a fine metallic or
ceramic ball rotates against a supply of semisolid ink.

The commonly used joining processes are

 Welding
 Soldering
 Brazing
 Adhesive bonding
WELDING PROCESSES

Welding is a metal joining process where coalescence (unite

so as to form one group body or mass) is obtained by heat
and/or pressure.

It may also be defined as a metallurgical bond accomplished

by the attracting forces between atoms.

Before these atoms can be bonded together, absorbed vapors

and oxides on contacting surfaces must be overcome.

Many welding processes have been developed which differ

widely in the manner in which heat is applied and in the
equipment used. These processes are listed in Table 4.1.

Some require hammering, rolling, or pressing to affect the

weld; others bring the metal to a fluid state and require no
pressure.
 Welding process
 It is joining process used for various metals and
their alloys.
 In these processes, two or more pieces of metals
are joined by application of either heat or pressure
or both.
 In plastic/pressure welding, the metal pieces to be
joined are heated to a plastic state and then forced
together by external pressure.
 In fusion/non-pressure welding, the metal pieces
to be joined are heated to molten state and
allowed to solidify.
Welding terminology
Parent Metal
• Metal to be joined or surfaced by welding, braze welding or brazing.
Filler Metal
• Metal added during welding, braze welding, brazing or surfacing.
Weld Metal
• All metal melted during the making of a weld and retained in the weld.
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
• The part of the parent metal metallurgical affected by the weld or thermal
cutting heat, but not melted.
Fusion Line
• Boundary between the weld metal and the HAZ in a fusion weld. This is a
non-standard term for weld junction.
Weld Zone
• Zone containing the weld metal and the HAZ.
Weld Face
• The surface of a fusion weld exposed on the side from which the weld has been
made.
Weld Root
• Zone on the side of the first run furthest from the welder.
Weld Toe
• Boundary between a weld face and the parent metal or between runs. This is a very
important feature of a weld since toes are points of high stress concentration and
often they are initiation points for different types of cracks (eg fatigue cracks, cold
cracks).
• In order to reduce the stress concentration, toes must blend smoothly into the parent
metal surface.
Excess Weld Metal
• Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes. Other non-standard terms for
this feature: reinforcement, overfill.
CHAPTER 4 WELDING AND JOINING PROCESSES 10
 Classification of welding process
1. Arc welding
a) Gas tungsten arc welding (TIG) b) Shielded metal arc welding
c) Gas metal arc welding (MIG) d) Submerged arc welding
e)Plasma arc welding f) Stud arc welding

2. Gas welding
a) Oxy-acetylene welding b) Oxy-hydrocarbon welding
c) Air-acetylene welding d) Pressure gas welding

3. Resistance welding
a)Spot welding b) Seam welding
c) Projection welding d) Percussion welding
e) Resistance butt welding
Advantages and disadvantages of welding
 Advantages
 A large number of metals or alloys, both similar and dissimilar
can be joined by welding.
 It can be mechanized.
 Strength of welded joint is more.
 It provides leak-proof joint.
 Welding equipments are not very costly.
 Disadvantages
 It gives harmful radiations, fumes and spatter.
 Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the
workpiece.
 Heat generated in welding process produces metallurgical
changes hence, the structure of welded joint is different than
that of parent metal.
 Applications of welding process
 Aircraft construction (welding of engine parts, turbine
frames, ducts, etc.)
 Rail-road equipments (Air receiver, engine, front and
rear hoods, etc.)
 Pipings and pipelines (open pipe joints, oil and gas
pipelines, etc.)
 Pressure vessels and tanks
 Buildings and bridges (column base plates, erection of
structures, etc.)
 Automobile parts (trucks, buses, cars, bike parts, etc.)
 Machine parts (frames, beds, tools, dies, etc.)
 Gas welding processes
Oxy-acetylene welding May 2013

Maximum temperature in this

process is 32000C
2C2H2 + 2CO2 → 4CO + 2H2 …..I
4CO + 2H2 + 3O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2 O
……..II
 Flame in Oxyacetylene welding
Light blue
Dec 2009, May 2012, Dec 2013

It is produced when equal volume of oxygen and acetylene are mixed

It is produced when excess oxygen is supplied

It is produced when less

oxygen is supplied
 Gas welding techniques
a) Leftward or fore-hand welding Dec 2010, Dec 2011, May 2014
Filler rod Welding torch  Welder holds
welding torch in his
right hand and filler
rod in left hand.
 Welding flame is
directed from right to
left.
 The welding torch is given a small sideways movement
and the filler rod should be moved steadily without
sideways movement.
 This technique is generally used on thin metals i.e. having
thickness less than 5 mm.
 Gas welding techniques
b) Rightward (Backward) welding
 Welding torch is
held in the right
hand of the welder
30o -400 and the filler rod in
the left hand.
 But, welding flame
is directed from
left to right.

 In this, the welding torch has no lateral movement.

 In this process, the welding speed is 20-25 % higher and
fuel consumption is 15-25 % lower than the leftward
technique.
 Gas welding techniques
c) Vertical welding method
 This method id more advantageous for
300
plate thickness of 6 mm and above.
 Welder starts at the bottom of joint and
gives an oscillating movement to the
Direction of welding →

welding torch which points slightly

upwards.
 It can be done by one or two operators.

1.5 mm= 250

3.2 mm=500
5 mm=900
 Comparison of Rightward and leftward
technique Dec 2011, May 2014
Sr. Rightward (Backward) Leftward (forward) technique
No. technique
1. The quality of obtained weld is The weld quality is poor than
better. rightward technique.
2. No beveling is required for welding Beveling is required for welding
upto 8.2 mm plate above 3mm plate thickness.
3. The welding is done from left hand The welding is done from right hand
to right hand. to left hand.

4. The total volume of deposited metal The total volume of deposited metal
is smaller, which reduces the is more.
shrinkage and distortion.
5. While welding V-groove, the In this, the view of the joint edges is
welder’s view is unobstructed. interrupted and it is necessary to
remove the end of the rod.
6. Low welding cost More welding cost
 Gas welding equipments
1. Oxygen gas cylinder
 These are black painted and valve outlets are screwed
right handed.
 The material used for cylinder is generally steel or alloy
steel.
2. Acetylene gas cylinder
 These are painted maroon and the valves are screwed left
handed.
 It is made up of steel
3. Oxygen and acetylene pressure regulators
 Used to reduce high pressure of gas in the cylinder to
working pressure.
 Gas welding equipments
4. Oxygen and acetylene gas hoses
 An oxygen hose is colored blue and has right handed
thread connections, whereas an acetylene hose is red
and has left handed thread connections.
 They are made up of rubber.
5. Welding torch or blow-pipe
6. Gas welding filler rods and fluxes
7. Goggles and gloves
8. Spark lighter
 Gas welding
 Advantages
 Operator has control over the temperature of weld zone.
 The rate of heating and cooling is relatively slow.
 The equipment is versatile, low cost, self-sufficient and generally portable.
 Low equipment and maintenance cost.
 Disadvantages
 Refractory and reactive metals cannot be welded.
 More time is required than arc welding.
 More safety problems are associated with the handling and storing of gases.
 Fluxes used in welding produces fumes that are irritating to the eyes, nose, throat
and lungs.
 Heavy sections cannot be welded economically.
 Applications
 Joining thin materials
 Joining most ferrous and non-ferrous metals
 In automobile and aircraft industries
 Arc welding process
 It is a fusion welding process in which welding heat is obtained from
an electric arc between an electrode and the workpiece.
 The temperature produced
at the centre of an arc is
6000 to 70000C.
 In this, the base metal is
melted by the temperature
of the arc, forming a pool of
molten metal.
 Either A. C. or D. C. supply is
used.
 The electrodes used in the
process are of two types i.e.
bare and coated electrodes.
 The length of electrodes varies from 250 mm to 450 mm whereas,
diameter varies from 1.6-9 mm.
 Arc welding
Advantages
 It is most versatile process which can be applied for both thick and thin
sections.
 Welding of complicated shapes can also be done.
 Welding can be done in any position with high weld quality.
 Welded parts are neat and smooth.
Disadvantages
 As the electrodes are coated, the chances of slag entrapment and their
related defects are more.
 Welding control is difficult.
 The process needed filler material.
 It is a slow process.
Applications
 Air receiver, boilers, pressure vessels fabrication
 Automobile, chemical and aircraft industry
Polarities in Arc welding process
Direct current
straight polarity
(DCSP)

Direct current
reverse polarity
(DCRP)
 May 2010, May
Arc welding equipments 2011, Dec 2011

A.C. or D.C. machine

Electrode and holder
 Bare electrodes
 Coated electrodes
 Consumable electrodes
 Non consumable electrodes
Filler rod and fluxes
Cables and cable connector
Earthing clamps
Chipping hammer
Wire brush
 Arc welding methods
 Gas tungsten arc welding (TIG)
 Shielded metal arc welding
 Gas metal arc welding (MIG)
 Submerged arc welding
 Plasma arc welding
 Stud arc welding
 Flux cored arc welding
 Carbon arc welding
 Electro slag welding
Carbon arc welding
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
Arc temperature is 24000 C to 26000 C

Dec 2010, May

2011, May 2012
 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
 Advantages
 It is simplest of all arc welding processes.
 The equipment is portable and less expensive.
 Various metals and their alloys can be welded.
 Welding can be done in any position with high weld quality.
 Limitations
 Mechanization is difficult
 Slow process
 Chances of slag entrapment and other related defects are more.
 Welding control is difficult
 Applications
 Used for all commonly used metals and their alloys.
 It is used for fabrication process
 Also used in fabrication of air receiver, boiler and pressure vessels.
 Automotive and aircraft industry
Submerged arc welding May 2010, Dec 2010
 Submerged arc welding
 Advantages
 High welding speed
 Weld distortion is very less
 Welding is carried out without sparks, smoke, flash or spatter
 Very neat appearance and smooth weld shapes can be obtained.
 No edge preparation is required for welding materials under 12 mm thickness.
 Limitations
 Operator cannot judge welding process accurately
 Welding requires edge preparation and accurate fill-up on the joint
 Flux will be subjected to contamination that may cause weld porosity.
 Cast iron, Al alloys, Mg alloys, Pb,, etc. cannot be welded by this method.
 Applications
 Used for welding metals such as mild steel, medium and high tensile low alloy
steels.
 Used for fabrication of pipes, penstocks, pressure vessels, boilers, railroad and
earth moving equipments, bridge girders, locomotives, ship building, nuclear
Gas Tungsten Arc welding (GTAW)
May 2010, Dec 2010, May 2011, May 2012, Dec 2012, May 2014, Dec 2014
 Gas Tungsten Arc welding (GTAW)
 Advantages
 No flux is used hence no flux entrapment
 Clear visibility of the arc and workpiece so better control over process.
 Produces smooth and sound welds with fewer spatters.
 No weld cleaning is required
 It produces high quality welds in non-ferrous metals.
 Limitations
 Cost of equipment is high.
 It can cause weld metal contamination in case of filler rod end comes out of the
shield.
 Slow process.
 Separate filler rod is required.
 Applications
 Used for welding of sheet metal and thinner sections.
 Precision welding in aircraft, chemical and instrumental industries.
 Welding of expansion bellows, instrument diaphragms and transistor cases.
Gas Metal Arc welding (GMAW)
May 2010, Dec 2010
 Gas Metal Arc welding (GMAW)
 Advantages
 It is faster process.
 It can produce joint with deep penetration.
 Both thin and thick workpieces can be welded.
 Higher metal deposition rates are achieved by using MIG welding and this process
can be easily mechanized.
 It produces smooth, neat, clean and spatter free welded surfaces.
 Limitations
 This process is more complicated.
 Welding equipments are more complex, costly and less portable.
 As air draft may disperse the shielding gas, MIG welding is not used for outdoor
applications.
 Applications
 For welding of tool steels and dies.
 For manufacturing of refrigerator parts.
 Also used in industries such as aircraft, automobile, pressure vessel and ship
building.
 May 2013

Comparison TIG and MIG welding

Sr. No. TIG MIG
1. Non-consumable electrodes are Consumable wires are used
used
2. Tungsten or tungsten alloys Bare welding wire is made of
electrode are used. desired composition.
3. Electrode generate only arc. Electrodes generates arc and melt
also.
4. Easier for thin and small parts. Widely used for thick plates.
5. Welding torch is water cooled. Welding torch is air or water
cooled.
6. Used for joining dissimilar metals. Used for joining similar metals.
7. It is a slow process. Faster process
8. Separate filler material is used. Metal electrode will act as a filler
material.
9. Cost of equipment is lower than Cost of equipment is high.
MIG.
Plasma Arc welding
May 2010, Dec 2013
 Plasma Arc welding
 Advantages
 It employs a constricted arc.
 It uses two inert gases, one plasma gas and another inert gas to shield plasma and
weld port.
 Total time required for welding is less.
 It permits faster metal deposition rates and higher arc travel speeds.
 Excellent weld quality can be obtained.
 Limitations
 Infra-red and ultra-violet radiations require special protection devices.
 Because of unpleasant, disturbing and damaging noise, welders need ear plugs.
 More chances of electrical hazards.
 Equipments are more complicated.
 Applications
 Used in tube-weld applications.
 Welding steel rocket motor cases.
 Welding of carbon, silicon, Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys.
 May 2010,

Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) May 2012

 Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
 Advantages
 It provides high quality weld metal at lower cost.
 It can weld a variety of steels over wide thickness range.
 Lesser post cleaning required than MIG welding.
 Relatively high travel speed and reduced spatter
 Arc is visible hence easy to weld.
 Excellent weld appearance and excellent contour of fillet welds.
 Limitations
 Used only to weld ferrous metals.
 It produces slag covering which has to reworked.
 Electrode wire is more expensive.
 Equipment is more expensive and complex.
 Applications
 Used on medium thickness steel fabricating work.
 Also used for surfacing and building.
 Welding of cast iron, low carbon-steel, low alloy steel, high and medium alloy steel,
stainless steel, etc.
 Bulldozer blades, main frames, rotating frames for cranes, tractor frames, punch press
Resistance welding process
May 2010, Dec 2010, Dec 2014

 In this process, coalescence is

produced by the heat
obtained from resistance
offered by the workpiece.
 Factors involved in resistance
welding
 Current
 Pressure
 Time
 Area of electrode tip
 Rt
 Copper electrodes are used
 Resistance welding process
 Advantages
 Rate of production is high.
 Filler rod is not required.
 The equipments used are semi-automatic.
 Less-skilled operators are required for the operation.
 Both similar and dissimilar metals can be welded.
 High reliability and reproducibility of welding joints are obtained.
 Limitations
 High initial cost.
 Skilled persons are required for maintenance of equipment.
 In some materials, special surface preparation is required.
 Workpieces of higher thickness cannot be welded.
 Applications
 Joining of sheets, bars, rods and tubes.
 Making of tubes and furniture.
 Welding of aircraft and automobile parts.
 Types of Resistance welding
Spot welding
Dec 2012

 Applications
 Used in
automobile
and aircraft
industries
 For joining
sheet metal
stampings
 Types of Resistance welding
Seam welding

 Applications
 Welding of low
carbon, high carbon
and low alloy steels,
Al, Ni, Mg and their
alloys
 Girth welds can be
done in square,
round or rectangular
parts
 Types of Resistance welding
Projection welding
Applications
 Mostly used in
automobile
industries
 Small fasteners, nuts
can be welded to
large components
 Welding of Naval
brass alloys, stainless
steel and titanium
alloys
 Types of welded joint

Lap or fillet weld

Welding defects
 Welding defects
Sr. Defect Causes Remedies
No.
1. Cracking  Defective electrodes  Change new electrode
 Small weld bead  Increase electrode size
 Angular distortion  Change to balance welding
 Highly rigid joint on both sides of the joint
 High sulphur base metal  Relieve residual stresses
mechanically
 Use filler metal low in
sulphur
2. Inadequate  Insufficient heat input  Follow proper welding
joint  Slag flooding ahead of procedure
penetration welding arc  Adjust electrode or
 Insufficient root opening workpiece position
 Misalignment of second side  Use proper joint geometry
weld  Use small electrodes
 Electrode diameter too large
 Welding defects
Sr. Defect Causes Remedies
No.
3. Slag  Failure to remove slag  Clean surface and previous
inclusion  Tungsten in the weld metal weld bead
 Improper joint design  Avoid contact between the
 Oxide inclusions electrode and the workpiece
 Slag flooding ahead of the or use larger electrode
welding arc  Increase groove angle of joint
 Provide proper gas shielding
4. Porosity  High solidification rate  Use preheated or increase
 Dirty base metal input of heat energy
 Improper arc length and welding  Clean joint faces and adjacent
current surfaces
 Dirty filler wire  Change welding conditions
 Excessive moisture in electrode and techniques
covering  Use specially cleaned and
 Excessive hydrogen, nitrogen or packaged filling wire
oxygen in welding atmosphere  Use low hydrogen welding
process, increase shielding gas
flow
 Welding defects
Sr. Defect Causes Remedies
No.
5. Incomplete  Incorrect position of  Maintain proper position
fusion electrode of electrode
 Trapped oxides or slag on  Clean weld surface before
weld face welding
 Insufficient heat supply,  Follow correct welding
wrong electrode, improper procedure
joint design
 Inspection of welding
Destructive testing
Tensile test
Bend test
Impact test
Hardness test etc.
Non-Destructive testing
Visual inspection
Radiography test
Hydraulic test
Air pressure test
 Adhesive bonding
 Adhesive bonding is the process of joining materials
by using adhesives.
 The term adhesive includes substances such as
glues, cements and other bonding agents.
 The microscopic voids between two solid surfaces is
filled with an adhesive fluid which develops strong
adhesive bond.
 Adhesive bonding procedure
1. Surface preparation
2. Applying the primer
3. Applying the adhesive
4. Assembling adhesive coated components
5. Curing the assembly
6. Testing the joints
Adhesive bonded joints
 Types of adhesives
1. Thermoplastic adhesives
 They soften at high temperature.
 They are employed as air drying dispersions, emulsions
or solutions, fusible solids and pressure sensitive tapes.
2. Thermosetting adhesives
 These adhesives once hardened cannot be remelted
and broken joint cannot be rebounded by heating also.
 These types of adhesive cure or harden by chemical
reactions caused by the addition of a catalyst, heat,
pressure, radiations, etc.
 Types of synthetic adhesives and their
applications
Sr. No. Type Applications
1. Phenolic Structural bonding, plywood
2. Acrylic Bonding of plastic, glass
3. Epoxy Structural bonding, concrete repair,
construction industries
4. Olefin Laminating, packaging, book-binding
polymers
5. Polyurethane Bonding of flexible to non-flexible substrate
6. Urea Plywood, furniture
 Adhesive bonding
Advantages
 Joins material of all shape and sizes.
 Very thin and delicate materials can be joined together.
 It can ensure smooth, unbroken surface contours without gaps or holes.
 Joint strength is more due to large contact area.
 It eliminates localized stress concentrations.
 It is less expensive and less skill process.
Limitations
 For proper and consistent results, surface preparation, adhesive application
and curing procedures are quite critical.
 Careful selection of adhesive is required.
 Most of the adhesives are unstable above 1770 C.
 Bonded joints cannot be readily disassembled.
Applications
 Automotive, aircraft, packaging, furniture, ship-building, book-binding, shoe
 Soldering
 It is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together
by melting and flowing a filler metal having a liquidus not exceeding
4270 C into the joint.
 The filler metal used in the process is called as solder which have
relatively low melting point.
 In this process, the parts to be joined are heated which causes
solder to melt and drawn into the joint by capillary action.
 In this process, base metals are not melted like welding.
 Solder material is mixture
of lead and tin.
 Soft solder (for joining sheet
metal parts subjected to low
temperature and loads)
 Hard solder(for joining parts
subjected to high temperature and
loads)
 Advantages and disadvantages- soldering
 Advantages
 Variety of dissimilar metals can be joined.
 It is simple and low cost method.
 Workpieces of different thickness can also be joined.
 It is low temperature process hence, there is no change in properties of
metals.
 Disadvantages
 Soldered joints are not stronger.
 Soldered joint has limited service at elevated temperatures.
 Corrosion resistance of soldered joint is less.
 Applications
 In assembly of electronic components
 Joints in sheet metal objects like food cans, roof flashing, iron, etc.
 Joints in wires
 Assembly of jewellery components
 Brazing
 It is the metal joining process in which a filler metal is heated above
4700 C and distributed between two or more close fitting parts by
capillary action.
 In brazing, metallic parts are joined by a non-ferrous filler metal or
alloy.
 It is similar to soldering, except the temperature used to melt the
filler metal is above 4700C.
 The filler metals used in the process are copper and silver based
alloys.
 Borax is used as flux.
 Advantages, disadvantages of Brazing
 Advantages
 Dissimilar metals and non-metals can be brazed.
 Due to uniform heating of parts, it produces less thermal
distortion than the welding process.
 Complicated components can be brazed at low cost.
 It produces clean joint.
 Disadvantages
 Strength of brazed joints is less as compared to welded joints.
 It can be damaged under high service temperatures.
 Filler metals used in the process are costly.
 Applications
 Brazing can join non-metals to metals, porous metal components,
dissimilar metals
 Joining of electrical equipments, pipes, heat exchangers, etc.
 Braze welding
 Braze or bronze welding is the method of welding
where a groove, fillet, plug or slot is made by using a
non-ferrous filler metal having a melting point below
that of the parent metal but above 4270 C.
 The filler metal is distributed by capillary action.
 Filler rod consists of 60% Cu and 40% Zn, which gives
high tensile strength and ductility.
 Applications
 Used for welding of dissimilar metals
 Metals having high M.P. such as steel, CI, Cu, Brass can be
bronze welded.
 It is also used for fabrication of metal furniture, bicycles,
 Comparison between soldering brazing
and braze welding
Sr. No. Parameter Soldering Brazing Braze welding
1. Principle Filler material is Filler alloy is fed to Filler material is
distributed by one or more points deposited directly at
capillary action in the assembly and the desired point.
it is drawn by
capillary action.
2. Temperature Below 4270 C Above 4270 Above 4270
3. Strength of Weak Strong Moderate
joint
4. Application Used for carbon, Used for CI, steels, Used for CI, steels,
low alloy steels, CI, Cu and alloys, Al and malleable iron, Cu,
stainless steel, Cu alloys, Mg and alloys Ni, and alloys, etc.
and alloys.
5. Corrosion Less More Moderate
resistance
6. Joint profile Small gap between Smooth joint Joint shows the
the joints ripples