Unit 6 The Formation of The Modern State of Ethiopia From 1855 To

Unit Six
The Formation of the Modern State of Ethiopia from 1855 to 1941
Kassa @2015 E.C HEUC April 27, 2024 1

the major Themes in the 19th C history
of Ethiopia were:
⮚Territorial unification and expansion
⮚Modernization
⮚Defending sovereignty and territorial
integrity

6.1. Territorial unification and expansion
 State building remained an agenda of several
powerful individuals and groups that arose in the
nineteenth century.
 States in the northern and central parts of Ethiopia
had relative strength.
 The making of the modern Ethiopian state went
through two distinct phases.
 Territorial Unification: Unifying northern and north
central parts of the Christian kingdom Ethiopia.
 Territorial expansion into the southern parts
adjoining the heartland of the Christian kingdom.

6.1. 1. Unification of Old provinces
 Imperial power had an old history in Ethiopia, despite
occasions of considerable resistance and challenge to
central authority.
 A good example is the period known as the Zemene
Mesafint (1769-1855).
 During this period the kings of the Gondarine Kingdom
virtually lost their supreme power and authority.
 A parallel development to this decline of imperial power
was the simultaneous strength of regional powers.
 The shift in the balance of power in favour of regional
lords created a fertile ground for political fragmentation,
civil wars and subsequent social, economic and political
disorder.
The process of making the modern Ethiopian Empire
was began by Emperor Tewodros II (1855-68).
Kassa Hailu(the future Emperor Tewodros II) was born
in Quara around 1818.
He was rise to royal power by bringing to end the Era
of Princes/ the Zemene Mesafint from 1769-1855.
He gained successive military victories over the
following powerful warlords between 1852-55.
Dejazmach Goshu of Gojjam: defeated at the
battle of Gura Amba in November 1852.
Dejazmach Biru Aligaz: defeated at the battle of
Gorgora Bichen in April 1853.

Ras Ali II of Yejju: defeated at the battle of Ayshal in
June 1853.
Dejazmach Wube of Tigrai and Semen:
defeated at the battle of Darasge in February 1855.
Kassa Hailu was crowned as Emperor Tewodros II
King of Kings of Ethiopia at the Church of Darasge
Mariam by Bishop Abune Selama in February 11,
1855.
He attempted the making of modern Ethiopia
involved the unification of regions and principalities
found in northern and north-central parts.

Emperor Tewodros dreamt of restoring imperial power
and began his imperial career with implementation of two
major policies- reunification and modernization.
Building political reunification on the remains of the
Zemene Mesafint, was however, a very difficult project
for Tewodros.
That was especially true when Tewodros who rushed into
its realization with a rigid approach - the use of force to
bring the regional lords under control.
The first military expedition for political reunification
was directed against the region of Wollo.
But, Wollo did not easily submit to the imperial army.
The first campaign in Wollo, which was f ought even during
fasting and rainy seasons, lasted f or six months.
Even then this campaign f ailed to bring about the submission of
Wollo.
 The continued local resistance drove the emperor to launch further
expeditions accompanied by very harsh treatment of captives
throughout his reign.
Another serious war with the autonomous Kingdom of Shoa,
which lasted for five months.
Here too, there was a bloody encounter with the imperial army of
Tewodros.
Shoa too, experienced harsh treatment in the hands of Tewodros.
 In November 1855, Tewodros returned to Maqdala with the belief
that he had settled matters in Shoa.
The emperor went on subduing one region after
another through protracted and punitive
military expeditions.
In all cases, he secured military victories.
For some regions he recognized loyal members of
regional dynasties to administer their respective
regions.
In other regions, such as Gojjam, he appointed his
own men from high- ranking civil and military
officials.
 Nevertheless, recognition of local dynasties does not
mean continuity with the old practices in the old way.

The initial military victories of Tewodros did not result
in political stability and effective, central control.
The legacies of the Zemene Mesafint did not die out
soon and the attempt at centralization proved to be a
difficult task to achieve.
 Local dynasties did not want to lose their traditional
economic, military and political autonomy.
They became rebelled against him.
He treated rebellious regions very harshly, punishing
most commonly with the cutting of f captives’ limbs,
burning houses and harvests to ashes and looting the
local people.

He treated rebellious regions very harshly,
punishing most commonly with the cutting of f
captives’ limbs, burning houses and harvests to
ashes and looting the local people.
The more harsh Tewodros became, the more
multiplied were the rebellions and his
unpopularity.
 This in turn provoked more tyrannical
measures by the emperor.

Downfall of Tewodros II
 The policy of modernization and restoration of Emperor
Tewodros II were failed because of the following reasons.
The opposition/challenge of the regional feudal lords
who lost their political and economic rights
His quarrel/conflicts with the church due to his reforms
of
 Redistributing church land
 Reducing the number of priests and deacons in church in
to 2 and 3 respectively.
 Imprisoning of Abune Selama in 1864 who died in prison
three years later.
The conflict with the British government due to the
arresting of the Europeans who lived in Ethiopia. It was
an immediate cause for his finalKassadownfall.
@2015 E.C HEUC April 27, 2024 12
The first and last major encounter between the
two forces took place on the plains of Eroge in
April 1868.
The battle of Erogee was f ought between un
equals- ended in the shattering defeat of
Ethiopians.
The event hastened the downfall of Tewodros
which had already been weakened by internal
factors, mainly the opposition of the regional
lords and the clergy.
Refusing to accept a British demand f or
unconditional surrender, Tewodros committed
suicide on 13 April 1868. Kassa @2015 E.C HEUC April 27, 2024 13
Emperor Yohannes IV (1872-89)
 Following the death of Emperor Tewodros, three
contenders to the throne emerged; namely,
Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta, Kassa Mircha of Tigray,
and Menelik of Shawa.
 Gobeze came to power immediately after
Tewodros as Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II (1868−71).
 Although attempts were made to create a smooth
relationship between the Emperor and Kassa
Mircha, the quest for state power put them in
enmity and it was brought to an end following a
battle at Assam (near Adwa) in July 1871 in which
the latter became victorious.
New Approach to Building Imperial Power
 Yohannes IV (1872-1889) attempted to
introduce a decentralized system of
administration permitting regional rulers to
exercise a great deal of autonomy.
 A typical example of this was his recognition of
Menelik as Negus of Shawa in 1878 by the
Liche agreement.
 He designated Ras Adal Tesema of Gojjam as
Negus Takla-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in
1881.

 He succeeded in achieving the unity of the
predominantly Christian provinces, including Wag and
Lasta, Simen, Begemidr, Amhara Saynt, Gojjam, Wallo,
Shawa, and the Mereb Melash for quite some time.
 Emperor Yohannes IV sought to end the religious
controversy within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC)
and presided over the Council of Boru Meda (1878),
where Tewahdo was declared the only doctrine of the
EOC.
 Ethiopian Muslims, especially those of Wallo, were
forced to be converted to Orthodox Christianity.
 The Wallo leaders such as Mohammed Ali and Amede
Liban were converted to Christianity and changed their
names to Ras Michael and Dajjach Hayle-Mariam,
respectively. Kassa @2015 E.C HEUC April 27, 2024 16
6.1. 2. Territorial Expansion
 The process of territorial expansion carried out during
the time of Menelik II (1889 to 1913).
 Emperor Menelik II persuaded the policy of territorial
expansion to the South, South-West and South-East
Ethiopian regions.
 The most successful of territorial expansion was
managed by Menelik of Shewa.
 This was because of the ff factors:
 Access to modern firearms.
 The control of resourceful areas that enabled the
emperor to build military muscle.
 The determination of his generals.
 He used two methods to incorporate the local
rulers. i.e. Peaceful submission and Forceful
subjugation
A. Peaceful Submission: the local rulers pay
regular annual tribute and run their regions as
autonomous rulers. Eg. The Oromo States of
Gibe & Wollega, Christian Gurage, Afar, Assosa
and Beni-Shangul.
B. Forceful Subjugation: local rulers were subduing
and incorporating to the Ethiopian Empire by
the use of forces. Eg. Muslim Gurage (resisted
led by Hassen Enjamo), Silte, Arsi, Harar,
Wolayta and Kaffa. Kassa @2015 E.C HEUC April 27, 2024 18
The campaign of territorial expansion by Menelik can be
divided in to 3 stages.
I. The First Stage (1875-89): it was conducted when he was king of
Shoa.
Eg. Northern Gurage (Kistane), Oromo regions of Gibe & Wollega,
Illubabor, Arsi (defeated at the battle of Azule in 1886) & Harari
& South East Oromo (defeated at the battle of Chellenqo in
January 1887).
 Menelik’s army faced fierce resistance from the Muslim Gurage
organized under a local leader known as Hassan Enjamo.
 This region was subdued by the army of Ras Gobena only in
1888 after years of unsuccessful resistance.
 Local rulers such as Aba Jiffar II of Jimma, Jote Tullu of
Leqa Qellem and Kumsa Moroda of Leqa Naqamte were
persuaded to accept peaceful incorporation and were rewarded
by internal administrative autonomy in the years 1882-84

II. The Second Phase (1889-1896)- was took
place after he crowned as an Emperor and lasted
until the battle of Adwa.
It was coincided with an event in Modern
Ethiopian history known as the Great
Famine/Kifu Qan from 1888-92.
It was caused by cattle epidemics, rinderpest,
imported with infected cattle from India in
Northern Ethiopia which resulted the migration
of the northern people to the Southern Regions.
Some of the were joined the army of Menelik
and participated the territorial expansion.
Eg. Bale, Sidamo and Wolayta
Wolayta was incorporated after a bloody war in
1894 when its last King Kawo Tona was
captured.
He was defeated by the combined armies of
Ras Michael, Fitawrari Gebayehu, Liqa Makwas
Abate, Dejach Balcha, Ras Wolda- Giorgis and
Aba Jifar II.

III. The Third Phase (1896-1900)- was conducted after the victory of Adwa
which aimed to create a buffer zones b/n the Ethiopian interiors and the
adjacent European Colonies.
Eg. The border areas of Ogaden, Assosa, Beni-shangule, Borana and Kaffa.
 Tato Gaki Sercho was the last King of Kaffa crushed by the army of
Menelik led by Ras Wolde Giorigs in 1897.
 The support of local rulers of newly incorporated regions in the
following conquests of Menelik was also evident in the conquest of
Assosa, Beni Shangul and Komosha areas along the Ethio-Sudanese
border.
 Here, Dejach Jote of Qelem and Dejach Gebre Egziabhcr (baptismal
name of Kumsa) of Naqamte gave military support to the army of Ras
Mekonnen.
 The defection of Sheik Abdurahman Hojale to the side of Ras Mekonnen
aborted the united resistance of the local people against the army of
Menelik.
 Following the conquest, Menelik reinstated loyal rulers to power as
vassals.
His famous military victory at the Battle of
Adwa intensified his competition with the
colonial powers, and by the turn of the 20th
century he had completed the process of
empire formation.
The of defining Ethiopia's modem territorial
extent might be said to have been completed
and the shape of modem Ethiopia was created
following a succession of boundary
demarcation agreements signed with the
neighbouring colonial powers between 1897 -
1908.
 The fates of the peoples and rulers of the newly
incorporated regions had two ways.
 The peacefully submitted regions and rulers
were:
❖ Saved from raids, devastation, and enslavement
of local peoples.
❖ spared from the quartering of Menelik’s soldiers.
❖ Local rulers allowed to keep their position and
exercise autonomous administration.
❖ They also paid fixed annual tribute to the Central
government.

The forceful subjugation regions and rulers
were:
❖Local peoples were enslaved
❖Local rulers lost their power and replaced by
appointees of Menelik.
Eg.
 Ras Tessema became ruler of Illubabor
 Ras Wolde Giorgis became ruler of Kaffa
 Ras Mekonnen became ruler of Hararghe
 Peasants were quartered by the Neftegna.
 They also lost their land due to the
introduction of land measurement system
called Qalad. Kassa @2015 E.C HEUC April 27, 2024 25
6.2. Modernization
 The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed efforts to
adopt western ideas and technology by Ethiopian monarchs.
Emperor Tewodros II
 He was very eager to build a strong modern national
army.
 Introduced military titles, like Yasr Aleqa, Yamsa
Aleqa, and Yeshi Aleqa.
 Wanted to import the technical know-how for
manufacturing firearms locally- Gafat.
 Introduced a policy of “general pacification”, warning
everyone should return to his lawful vocation, the
merchant to his store, and the farmer to his plough.

 Tried to separate the church and the monarchy.
 Also attempted to put an end to the slave trade.
 Attempted to ban polygamy.
 The use of Amharic became more developed,
 established a traditional library at Maqdela.
 tried to solve the doctrinal controversy within the
EOC.
 However, Tewodro’s reforms were not fully
materialized owing to internal oppositions and

external challenges.

Modernization attempts of the reign of Emperor Menilek II
 The period that followed the victory of Adwa to the
Fascist Italian invasion in 1935 witnessed several
important developments in Ethiopia.
 elements of modernization were introduced in
transport , trade, education and urbanization.
 the establishment of a postal service and
telecommunications/ the telephone-telegraph system.
 construction of railway line from Djibouti to Addis
Ababa,
 the opening of a bank (the Bank of Abyssinia) and
 the introduction of paper money.
 In terms of administration, the emperor introduced
European style ministerial system/ministers in 1907.

Menelik’s reign also witnessed the opening of:
 a hotel in 1907 (Itege Tayitu Hotel),
 modern school (Menelik II School in 1908) and
 the foundation of Russian Red Cross hospital in
1906 and
 Russian-run hospital (Menelik II Hospital) in 1910.
Socio-Economic Developments
 Agriculture- the Gebbar System
 Changes in slavery and slave trade
 introduction of manufacturing
 expansion of urbanization and urban life- Dire
Dawa, Adama, Bishoftu
 politico-religious centers (royal camps and
garrison towns ) e.g. AA, Gore, Gobba.
6.3. Defending sovereignty and territorial integrity
 Foreign threat against Ethiopian independence,
though manifested even earlier, reached a peak
in the second half of the nineteenth century.
 It came from several directions; Egypt, the
Mahadist Sudan and Italy.

6.3.1. Resistance to Egyptian and Mahadist Aggressions
 Ethiopia and Egypt had a long history of relationships
which involved cultural, commercial and religion.
 This relationship was affected since the turn of the
19th century as Egypt embarked on a vigorous
expansion into the Horn of Africa, which included
Ethiopia as the source of the Blue Nile.
 The age-old ambition to control the Nile drainage
system was the main interest of Egyptian rulers.
 Thus, in 1821 Egypt occupied Sudan.
 Despite fierce resistance, the military superiority of
the Egyptian army and internal conflicts among local
people left Sudan an easy prey to the Egyptian
conquerors.
 As the source of the Blue Nile, Ethiopia was also victim
of Egyptian expansion.
 The process of Egyptian expansion, which had
a significant impact on the course of Ethiopian
history in the 19th C, can be divided into two
phases.
A. The First Phase of Expansion (1820s-1872)
B. The Second Phase of Expansion (1872-1885)

A. The First Phase of Expansion
(1820s-1872)
✔ Initiated by Mohammed Ali and Coincided with
a period of political, economic and religious
crisis of the Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855) in
Ethiopia.
✔ Came from the West in the Sudan. In 1821, the
Egyptian troops overrun the Funji Kingdom
Sennar.
✔ Egyptian ambition towards Ethiopia to control
the sources of the Blue Nile brought Ethiopia
and Egypt in to confrontation on three fronts.
❖ Semen: Egypt face strong resistance by Dejazmach Wube.
❖ Metemma: Dejazmach Kinfu of Quara protected Egyptian
expansion.
❖ The Sheikdoms of Guba, Assossa, Beni Shangul and
Khomosha: the Egyptians were more successful.
 Ethio- Egyptian conflicts were intensified during the
reign of Emperor Tewodros.
 In 1865 the Egyptians took over the possession of the
port of Massawa from the Ottoman Turks on the basis of
a lease contract.
 The Egyptians then began to collect heavy taxes from
Ethiopian merchants and blocked the import of firearms.

2. The Second Phase of Expansion (1872-1885)
✔ The more aggressive phase of expansion under
Khedive Ismail Pasha (1863-79) during the reign of
Emperor Yohannes IV.
✔ Came from the Red Sea by official occupy the port of
Massawa in 1866.
✔ The Ambitions of Khedive Ismail were:
 Build the Greater Egypt in North-East Africa that had
complete control of the waters of the Nile.
 Ruled the region from the Mediterranean Sea to the
Equatorial Lakes and from Chad to the Indian Ocean.
 The pretext of eradication of the slave trade and
“extension of western civilization” into Africa were
used by the rulers of Egypt to justify expansionist
ambitions. Kassa @2015 E.C HEUC April 27, 2024 35
The reaction of Emperor Yohannes IV for the Bogos
invasion were:
❖ Used a diplomatic campaign to solve the Bogos
crisis of 1872 peacefully.
❖ Wrote a letter to Khedive Ismail in July 1872 that
contains the following points.
 Protested Egyptian occupation of Bogos
 Defined his boundary in the North-East
 Demand the withdrawal of Egyptian troops from
Ethiopia.
 Sent letters to the European powers of Britain,
France, Germany, Austria, and Russia about the
unlawful invasion of his country by Egypt.
✔ The following developments were also
encouraged the Egyptian aggression towards
Ethiopia.
⮚ The success of the British military expedition of
1868 over Tewodros II.
⮚ The internal political turmoil and the regional
rivalries following the death of Tewodros II.
⮚ He saw the Europeans as friends to Egypt due to
its economic and strategic importance following
the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
 Werner Munzinger:A Swiss- German who
designed the Egyptian aggression in Ethiopia.
 Appointed as governor of Massawa in 1871 by
Khedive Ismail and invaded Bogos, Eritrea, in
✔ Khedive Ismail launched a three-pronged penetration
of the Ethiopian interior in October 1875.
A. The Port of Zeila: the Egyptian army led by
Mohammed Rauf Pasha controlled the Emirate of
Harar in October 1875.
B. The Port of Tajura: a small Egyptian army led by
Werner Munzinger aimed to control the trade
routes of Wollo and Shoa.
 The Egyptian force was ambushed and
eradicated/wiped out by the Afars.
 Werner Munzinger was killed in November 1875.
C. The Port of Massawa: a strong Egyptian army led by
a Danish Officer Colonel Arrendrup controlled the
region north of the Mereb River without meeting any
resistance. Kassa @2015 E.C HEUC April 27, 2024 38
The Battle of Gundet/ Gudagude
⮚ It was fought between Egypt and Ethiopia on 16
November 1875 near the Mereb River.
⮚ Its outcome was the total defeat of a large number
of Egyptian soldiers and Arrendrup was killed.
The Battle of Gura
 It was a more bloody war fought between Ethiopia
and the Egyptian forces led by Mohammed Ratib
Pasha and the American General Loring
 It lasted for three days (7-9 March 1876) at Gura in
Akale Guzay.
 Ethiopia scored/achieved another victory over
Egypt.

⮚ Emperor Yohannis IV sent an envoy Blatta
Gebre Egziabher to Cairo for peace. He asked
the restoration of Bogos and free access to the
sea.
⮚ But the Egyptian detained the envoy.
⮚ He agreed to release the prisoners of war but
refused to return the captured weapons.
⮚ Khedive Ismail sent General Charles Gordon to
Emperor Yohannis IV to a peace mission in
1877.
⮚ Ismail agreed to free trade with Ethiopia.
⮚ But the mission was failed because Ismail
expressed the need to limit the import of arms
to Ethiopia. Kassa @2015 E.C HEUC April 27, 2024 40
Aftermath of Gura
❖ Destroyed the Egyptian plans of expansion in
Ethiopia
❖ A period of “No Peace No War” was set from
1876-84 because Egypt was:
✔ Behaved/acted as the victor rather than the
defeated
✔ Demanded the repatriation of the Egyptian
prisoners of wars.
✔ Demanded the restoration of their armies
captured at battle fields.

The Hewett/Adwa Treaty
✔ Egypt sought a diplomatic alliance with
Ethiopia.
✔ Two events accounted for this change of
stand.
✔ In 1884, Egypt was forced to sign a peace
treaty with Ethiopia due to the following
developments.
 Egypt f ell t o Brit ish occupat ion in 1882.
❖ The rise of a religious revivalist and nationalist
movement in the Sudan by the, Mahadists in
1881.
 To save the sandwiched Egyptian garrison in
eastern Sudan. Kassa @2015 E.C HEUC April 27, 2024 42
✔ On 3 June 1884, the Treaty of Hewett was signed between
Emperor Yohannis IV and Rear Admiral William Hewett (on
behalf of Egypt and Britain) at a place known as Adwa.
✔ It ended the Ethio- Egyptian conflict
✔ through British diplomatic intervention.
✔ By the Treaty, the British:
⮚ Promised to Ethiopia free-transit via the port of Massawa.
⮚ Restoration of occupied regions to Ethiopia following the
withdrawal of Egyptian troops.
⮚ Ethiopia promised to facilitate the evacuation of the
Egyptian troops from their encircled position in eastern
Sudan, through Ethiopian territory to Massawa, and then
to Egypt.

Consequences of Hewett Treaty
❖ On the surf ace, the Hewett Treaty seemed to be
more rewarding for Ethiopia than the military
victories of Gundet and Gura.
❖ It promised restoration of occupied regions and
opening a sea out let- Massawa.
❖ Yohannes thus chose to become an ally of Egypt.
❖ But this :
❖ Marked the beginning of the Ethio-Mahdist
conflicts.
❖ Ethiopia did not regained Massawa.
 Italy occupied the port of Massawa on February
5, 1885 with British support.
 The Battle of Metemma: was took place
on 9 March 1889.
✔ The Ethiopian forces led by Emperor Yohannis IV.
✔ As the Ethiopians on the verge of victory but the
Emperor was wounded, died and beheaded by
the Mahdist troops known as Ansars, as a sign of
Mahdist revenge.

The Ethio- Mahdist Conflicts
✔ Was a series of clash between the Mahdist Sudan and the
Ethiopian forces from 1885-89.
 The Battle of Kufit: was the first clash between Ras
Alula (Yohannis’s famous general) and Uthman Diqna
(famous Mahdist Commander) in September 1885.
 the outcome was a costly victory for Ras Alula.
 The Battle of Sar Wuha: was fought between Negus
Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam and the Mahdist in January
1887 in Lake Tana.
 Negus Tekle Haymanot was defeated and the Mahdist
soldiers burnt churches and carried out mass
enslavement in the North-West Ethiopia.

6.3.2. Italian Aggression against Ethiopia and
the Battle of Adwa
 During t he second –half of the 19th
century, a third and major source of
aggression against Ethiopia was Italy.
 Italy had colonial designs over Ethiopia.
 Therefore, her colonial ambitions led her
to occupy territories in the north, establish
the colony of Eritrea and fight the Battle of
Adwa against Ethiopia in 1896.

6.3.2.1. First Strongholds of Italy in Ethiopia
 The Italian foothold on the Horn of Africa
began when an Italian private shipping
company (Rubatino) had bought the port of
Assab from the local chiefs in 1869.
 The port was transferred to the Italian
government in 1882.
 Moreover, Great Britain secretly transferred
Massawa from Egypt to Italy in 1885.
 Using these bases as a springboard, Italy began
penetrating northern Ethiopia, Mereb Melash.

 The Italian attempts to encroach
 into the highlands of the Mereb Mellash
(Eritrea) region was unacceptable both to
Emperor Yohannes IV and his
commander, Ras Alula Engida.
 Alula was also Governor of the province
of Mereb Mellash.
 Therefore, the Italians came into direct
conflict with Yohannes and Alula.

The Battle of Dogali
❖ Caused by the unlawful Italian occupation of
Ethiopian territory.
❖ 500 Italian troops were ambushed by Ras Alula
Engida (governor of Mereb Mellash) on 25,
January 1887.
❖ This was actually the first serious blow to Italian
colonial advance in Ethiopia.
❖ Thus, it created great anxiety and provoked
Italian desire for revenge.
❖ However, while Italy wanted military revenge,
Britain intervened as a peace broker, of course,
on behalf of the aggressor.
Gerald Portal’s Mission
Sir Gerald Portal was the British envoy sent to
negotiate Ethiopia and Italy in November 1887.
 The mission includes:
❖ Proposed a war indemnity for Italy
❖ Official Ethiopian apology for Alula’s attack
❖ Cession of occupied coastal regions of Wia and Saati to
Italy and proposed Italy’s protectorate right over
Asswarta, Habhab and Saati.
 The mission was failed because Emperor Yohannes was
became unwilling to accept the prerequisites of the
mission and the dishonesty of the British diplomacy.
 He declared war on the Italians and called his people
to mobilize against the aggressors in March 1888.
✔ Within a few weeks, about 80,000 men followed Yohannes on
his march across the Mereb river to fight the Italians at their
fortress of Saati in March 1 888.
✔ The Saati confrontation did not turn to actual fighting,
however, because the Italians refused to come out of their
fortified position and meet the Ethiopian army in the open
field.
✔ A deadlock was created that lasted for a month.
✔ The Ethiopian army, consisting largely of peasants short of
supplies, could not stay long at Saati.
✔ They had to return home to their farms.
✔ Nor was the supply of provisions enough to keep up the
confrontation for long.
✔ Yohannes had to choose between retreat or strike on the
Italians in their fortress.
✔ In the following year he was died while fighting with the
Mahdist forces in 1889.
Emperor Menelik II and the Italians
 Menelik established relations with the Italians when he
gave a camping site for the Italian Geographic Society led
by Antinori at Let Marefia in Shoa in 1876.
 The Treaty of Commerce and Friendship was signed b/n
Menelik and Count Antonelli in 1883 with the aim of
strengthening the Assab-Shoa Trade.
 The Convention of Neutrality was signed b/n Menelik and
Italy in October 1887 with the objective of neutralized
Menelik in the event of war with Emperor Yohannes by
promising Menelik 5000 rifles.
 The above friendly relations between Menelik and the
Italians seem to have been based on their interest in
securing each other ‘s support for the Ethiopian crown
and colonial expansion, respectively.
The Wuchale Treaty
 Signed between King Menelik of Shoa and Count
Pietro Antonelli of Italy on 2 May 1889 at Wuchale
(Ambasel) in Wollo. Menelik signed the treaty
because to ;
 Stop the Italian expansion to the Mereb Mellash
region peacefully.
 Protect the subversive activity of the Italians from
his rivals for the throne like Ras Mengesha
Yohannes.
 The Wuchale Treaty had 20 Articles. Among these:
 Article III: delimited the boundary b/n Ethiopia
and Italian occupied regions of Mereb Mellash.
 In the same year, Italy notified for European
powers that Ethiopia became an Italian
protectorate.
 Russia and France were not recognized the
notification.
 Emperor Menelik II declared the official
abrogation of the Wuchale Treaty in February
1893 and notified to major European powers and
Italy.
 On 1 January 1890, Eritrea became the first
colony of Italy in Africa.
 Article XVII: was the most controversial article that deals
with the foreign relation of Ethiopia.
 The Amharic Version: Ethiopia could use the service of
the Italian government in her foreign relation with the
Europeans.
 The Italian Version: bound Menelik to made all his
foreign contacts through the agency of Italian
government.
 It also reduced the statues of Ethiopian independence as
a protectorate of Italy.
The Additional Convention
 It was signed b/n Italy and Ras Mekonnen in October
1889 in Rome to ratified the Wuchale Treaty.
 The Italians cheated Ras Mekonnen by insert a clause
called “Effective Occupation”.
The Mereb Convention
✔ Signed b/n Ras Mengesha Yohannis and the Italians in
December 1891 near the Mereb River.
✔ It was part of the Italian policy of Subversion with the local
Tigrean Princes.
✔ The Italian Subversive activity in Northern Ethiopia was
failed due to:
 Their racist activities and policy of white settlement on the
peasant lands.
 Ras Mengesha and Ras Alula were renewed their loyalty to
Emperor Menelik II in June 1894.
 . The outbreak of peasant rebellion in Akale Guzay led by
Dejazmach Bahta Hagos against Italy in December 1894.
 The Italians and Ras Mengesha fought wars at the battles
of Qoatit and Senafe in 1895.
The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath
 It was caused by:
⮚ Italian colonial ambition and Ethiopian
commitment to defend sovereignty.
 The Italians unwillingness to abrogate the
Wuchale Treaty
 The determination of Menelik and Taytu to
protect the sovereignty of Ethiopia.
 In September 1895, Emperor Menelik II was issued a
general mobilization order against Italy with the support
of his wife Empress Taytu Bitul.
 The Battle of Adwa had three phases.
1. The Battle of Ambalage: Menelik’s army led by Fitawrari
Gebeyehu crushed the Italian army led by Tosselli on 7
December 1895.
2. The Siege of Mekelle: based on Empress Taytu’s
proposal, Ras Mekonnen besieged the Italian
fortification at Mekelle and closed the Italians access to
water and food supply from 7-21 January 1896.
3. The Battle of Adwa: was a decisive historical fighting
b/n Ethiopia and Italy on 1 March 1896.
 It was short but bloody battle and Ethiopia won a
complete victory.
 The Ethiopian forces were led by Emperor Menelik,
Empress Taytu and war generals like Fitawrari
Gebeyehu, Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen, Ras Alula, Ras
Mangasha and Negus Tekle-Haymanot.
 The Italian forces led by Generals Oreste Baratieri,
Albert one, Arimondi and Dabormida.
⮚ The sovereign status of Ethiopia got
international recognition.
⮚ This recognition was expressed in two ways:
 The European powers opened their legation in
Addis Ababa.
eg. Italy (1896), France and Britain (1897), USA
(1903), & Germany (1905).
 European powers possessing colonies adjacent
to Ethiopia delimited their respective common
boundaries between Ethiopia and their
colonies, in the years between 1897- 1908.
 This gave birth to the present shape of
Ethiopia.
The Consequences and Historical
Significance of the Adwa Victory
 Arouse internal oppositions against the Italian
Prime Minister Francesco Crispi.
 The Treaty of Addis Ababa was signed b/n
Ethiopia and Italy on 26 October 1896.
 By this Treaty Italy:
 Recognized the absolute independence of
Ethiopia.
 Accepted the total abrogation of the Wuchale
Treaty.
 Delimited their boundary along the rivers of
Mereb, Belessa and Muna.
⮚ Restored black dignity, freedom and solidarity.
⮚ Inspired the emergence of “religious separatist
movements” known as Ethiopianism.
 It was a movement that combined religious
separatism and anti-colonial political struggle.
⮚ Inspired the early Pan-Africanist movement.
⮚ Encouraged Africans fighting against colonialism.
The Limitations of Adwa
⮚ Did not drive out the Italians from Eritrea.
⮚ Italy used Eritrea for subversive activities and
invasion of Ethiopia in 1935.
⮚ Did not open a sea outlet to Ethiopia.
6.3.2.2. The Second Italo-Ethiopian War and
The Patriotic Resistance Movements (1934 to 1941)
 Despite their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the
Italians had never given up their desire to
colonize Ethiopia and were waiting for an
opportune time to revenge on their defeats.
 Following its defeat at Adwa, the international
and domestic crisis forced the Italian
government to adopt a policy of "friendly"
relations with Ethiopia.
 However, the colonial ambitions did not totally
die out.
 There were signs of revival of the Italian colonial interests in
Ethiopia.
 Italy's plan of building a railway connecting her colonies of
Eritrea and the Italian Somaliland by the Tripartite Treaty of
1906.
 Italy's intention to became the supreme colonial power of
the Horn of Africa by taking over British and French
Somaliland's, Bank of Abyssinia and the Djibouti - Addis
Ababa railway in 1915.
 The Fascist seized power in Italy in 1922 and win the
support of the masses by promising the avenge / revenge
the defeat of Adwa and the restoration of the "glory" of the
Roman Empire to Italy.
 By the 1925 Anglo - Italian Agreement, the Italian
government agreed to give a diplomatic support to Britain's
plan of building a Dam on Lake Tana.

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Unit Six

The Formation of the Modern State of Ethiopia from 1855 to 1941

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