Contents

The Gondarian period and zemene mesafint...........................................................................................1

Gondarian period.....................................................................................................................................1
Zemene Mesafint (The era of warlord)..................................................................................................2

The making of modern Ethiopian state process of territorial unification and expansion....................4
The making of modern Ethiopian state.................................................................................................4
The process of territorial Unification.....................................................................................................7
The major challenges during the territorial expansion
The Gondarian period and zemene mesafint

Gondarian period

The Gondarian period refers to the years during which the rulers of the highlands Christian
Kingdom ruled from a new capital called Gondar. Beginning from the mid sixteenth century the
kingdom gradually shifted its political center from the Shewan highlands to the Lake Tana
region. The shift was caused by Adal’s continued threat as well as the pressure of the Oromo
population movement. After the death of Gelawdows in1559, Minas (1559-63), brother and
successor of Gelawdows, retreated to the lands north of the Abay River.

Gondar was founded by Fasiladas around 1636. Gondar was strategically located on the long-
distance trade route that linked the southwestern regions with Massawa on the Red Sea and
Mettema on the Ethio-Sudanese border. Its establishment as a permanent capital city brought an
end to the tradition of ruling from temporary camps. Gondar continued to serve as political
center for the next two centuries.

Gondar became known for its architectural achievements and building technology. Several kings
who ruled from Gondar built very beautiful castles as palaces. Churches, bridges and swimming
pools were constructed. Particularly during the reigns of its three successive kings:

 Fasiladas (r. 1632- 1667)

 Yohanes I (r. 1667- 1682) and
 Iyasu I (1682-1706)

Gondar attained great prosperity and technological developments. The city grew and traditional
schools of learning were built and expanded around their palaces and Churches. These three
Gondarian rulers were also politically stronger than their successors.

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The last stage of the Gondarian period was dominated by the growing power and importance of a
Quara born woman called Itege Mentewab. She was the wife of Emperor Bakafa (1721-30).
Soon after the death of Bakafa she began to rule over the kingdom as a regent for her young son
and the successor of Bakafa, Iyasu II (1730-55) until his death in 1768, she was Supported by her
strong brother, Welde Leul, on whom she bestowed prestigious title of Ras Bitweded.

The warlords were contending for title of Ras Bitweded and position during the whole period of
the Zemene Mesafint. Mentewab lost power in 1769 to the Tigrean warlord, Ras Michael Sehul.
Michal Sehul came to Gondar, killed the reigning king, Iyoas (1755-1769), and took over the
title of Ras Bitweded. Gondar also suffered from internal splits within the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church. The clergy on their part were engaged in conflicts over religious principles or doctrines
which had also a regional character. It was the combination of political and religious disputes
that finally led to the period of the Zemene Mesafint or the Era of warlords.

Zemene Mesafint (The era of warlord)

The Zemene Mesafint, or "Era of warlord," was a period in Ethiopian history from 1769 to 1855,
characterized by the rise of powerful regional warlords who challenged the authority of the
monarchy. Ras Michael Sehul of Tigrai emerged as a central figure during this time, initially
restoring peace and order in Gondar but later assassinating King Iyoas, marking the beginning of
the era.

After a brief period as a "King Maker," Michael Sehul was opposed by regional warlords and
eventually forced back to his power base in Tigrai. Subsequently, Ali Gwangul from the Yejju
Oromo family founded a new ruling dynasty known as the Yejju dynasty, which dominated the
politics of northern Ethiopia until the middle of the nineteenth century.

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The Zemene Mesafint era was characterized by endless wars. This endless wars of the Zemene
Mesafint affected the social and economic life of the peasantry. The peasants suffered from the
frequent wars. The peasants were forced to feed the big armies of the local and regional lords.
The many shiftas (bandits) also forced the peasant, to supply them food. Therefore, agriculture
which formed the backbone of peasant economy was depressed during this period.

It also affected the development of trade. Merchants could not travel peacefully along the long-
distance trade routes due to endless wars and robbery. Moreover, they were forced to pay heavy
taxes at many gates (tax stations) of the different warlords.

The most important items of trade during the Zemene Mesafint were natural products such as
ivory, gold, and civet. Slaves formed an important element of trading items. War captives, as a
result of feudal wars, increased the supply of slaves who were in high demand in Arabia. By and
large, the continuous wars of the Zemene Mesafint had undermined sense of nationalism. It was
a period of weak national feeling as well as national power.

Overall characteristics of zemene mesafint

 Decline if imperial power (central government)

 Growing and strengthening of regionalism
 Continual civil war and instability of people
 Religious controversies among clergies
 Foreign threat against the independence and unity of Ethiopia
 Kasa Hailu ended the zemene mesafint by successive military

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The making of modern Ethiopian state process of territorial unification and
expansion

The making of modern Ethiopian state

Ethiopian’s modern period is from 1855 to present represented by the reigns of the Tewodros II,
Yohannes IV, Menelik II, Zewditu and Haile slassei I. And also, by Marxist regime Mengistu
haile mariam and by transitional Government of Ethiopia under Meles Zenawi has been
characterized by nation-building as well as by warfare.

One of the most magnificent Ethiopian leaders and founder of modern Ethiopia was emperor
Tewodros II.

Emperor Tewodros II

Tewodros II, in western Theodore II, whose original name Kassa lived between 1818-1868. He
has been Ethiopian’s first modern ruler. Not only he reunifies the various Ethiopian kingdoms
into one empire, but he also attempted to focus loyalty around the government rather than the
Ethiopian church, which he sought to bring under royal control. He works to abolish the feudal
system and create a new nobility of merit, dependent on the ruler alone.

Milestone of Tewodros II

 Born from the regional lords of the zemene mesafint

 He ended the zemene mesafint and the first king of the modern Ethiopia
 He is credited for the beginning of unification of Ethiopia
 He manufactured cannon at Gafat
 He is the symbol of unity and heroism due to his careers.

Aims of Tewodros for Ethiopia

 he wanted to form a united centralized state

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  he wanted manufacturing fire arms in Ethiopia
 he believed in religious unity for national unity
 he planned the withdrawal of Turkish force from the red sea coastal areas.

Although Tewodros’s first years were marked by attempts at social reform, he tried to modernize
the army, create a new nobility of merit, and establish garrisons nationwide. These efforts
alienated the peasantry and clergy, leading to conflicts with regional aristocrats.

In 1861, Tewodros conceived a bold foreign policy to bolster his kingdom and promote his
reforms, offering an alliance to Queen Victoria to destroy Islam. The British ignored the scheme,
leading to the imprisonment of the British envoy and other Europeans. In response, Tewodros
imprisoned several British missionaries and envoys, accusing them of plotting against him.

This diplomatic incident led to the Anglo-Indian military expedition in 1868, which resulted in
the defeat of Tewodros's forces at Magdela. Realizing the hopelessness of his position, Tewodros
committed suicide two days later.

The Ethiopian modernization is not only limited to one ruler, but also the following leaders were
also contributed for the state creation pf modern Ethiopia such as

Emperor menilek II

Menilek subsequently directed the solomonie state into areas never before under its rule.
Between 1896 and 1906 Ethiopia expanded to its present size, taking in the highlands, the key
river system and buffer of low-lying zones around the state’s central core. Revenue from the

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periphery were used to modernize the new capital of Addis Ababa, to open school hospitals and
to build communication networks. Menilek contracted with a French company to construct a
railway between Addis Ababa and Djibouti which thus spurred exploitation of the country’s
produce by foreign merchants in cooperation with the ruling elites.

Modern Economies of Ethiopia

Through the 19th century, Ethiopia’s economy functioned on an essentially feudal system.
Wealth moved upward from an agricultural peasant base to merchants, tradesmen, the military,
and the aristocracy. Despite periodic efforts at modernization, Ethiopia remained a rural society
at heart. It worked with European colonial powers to build new infrastructure networks while at
the same time maintaining its own independence.

These efforts proved successful until 1936, when Italy conquered and occupied the region.
The brief colonial era saw further infrastructure improvements, at the cost of Ethiopian
independence and stability. Soon after the end of World War II, Ethiopia regained its sovereignty
and its lasting, Haile Selassie, returned to his throne. Over the next few decades, agrarian
traditions became a liability as droughts and famines increased.
Social unrest grew into 1974’s coup, installing a militaristic socialist government in place of the
monarchy.

This period saw the nationalization of land and industry across Ethiopia, as well as violent
clashes with Eritrean independence movements and the government’s own political opponents.
Continued drought and famine only worsened the plight of average Ethiopian people. In 1993,
Eritrea formally gained its independence, making Ethiopia the most populous landlocked nation
in the world. After the fall of the Derg, the common name for the socialist government, Ethiopia

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reformed under the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front, which has focused on
economic growth.

Today, Ethiopia represents a growing economy and a center of industry in Africa. Opportunity
and income vary around the nation, which is still heavily rural. Poverty, while still an issue, is
gradually lessening. According to the CIA World Factbook, the nation currently experiences
some of the lowest income inequality in the world. Its major industries today include mining,
coffee, textiles, and agricultural exports.

The process of territorial Unification

The process of territorial unification in Ethiopia also began in 1855 under Emperor Tewodros II,
who reunified the country and marked the start of its modern history. Key events and aspects of
this process include:

 Centralised Governance:
o Aimed to centralise authority by diminishing the influence of regional lords.
o Abolished the traditional taxation system and implemented a new, consistent tax
structure.
 Church Relations:
o Worked towards strengthening the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
o Aimed to reunite the church with its dissenting factions and placed the church
under state control.
 Infrastructure Development:
o Undertook infrastructural projects, including the construction of bridges and roads
to enhance connectivity.
o Introduced modern weaponry and European military tactics.
 Foreign Relations:
o Sought to forge alliances with European powers, especially the British.
o His plea for assistance to the British to help modernise Ethiopia was
misunderstood, leading to conflicts and the infamous Magdala Expedition.

Overall, the territorial unification of Ethiopia under Emperor Tewodros II marked a significant
turning point in the country's history, setting the stage for future reforms and challenges.

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 Yohannes IV (1872-1889)
Emerged as a dominant figure after the death of Tewodros II.
 Religious Tolerance:
 Advocated for religious tolerance despite being a devout Orthodox Christian.
 Offered protection to other Christian denominations and Muslims, strengthening
the empire's internal unity.
 Expansionist Policy:
 Focused on consolidating power and territory, including key regions like Tigray
and Hamasien.
 Engaged in significant military campaigns to stave off threats and unify regions
under the Ethiopian banner.
 Resistance to Colonization:
 Recognized the rising colonial threats from European powers and other entities.
 Defended Ethiopian territories against multiple invasions, especially from Egypt,
and laid the groundwork for future defenses.
 Battle of Metemma:
 Yohannes IV's dedication to protecting Ethiopia was evident during this critical
battle against Mahdist forces. Despite emerging victorious, he succumbed to his
injuries.

 Menelik II (1889-1913)
King of Shewa and a skilled diplomat and visionary leader.
 Modernization:
Introduced telegraphs, constructed modern roads, initiated the Addis Ababa to
Djibouti railway, and started the establishment of a national bank.

 Expansion:

Executed several military campaigns, leading to the annexation of key territories such
as Sidamo, Wolaita, and Harar, effectively doubling Ethiopia's size.

 Battle of Adwa:

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  This historic battle against Italian colonial forces was a turning point. With a well-
armed and numerically superior force, Menelik II decisively defeated the Italians.
 Treaty of Addis Ababa:
 The subsequent treaty in 1896 with Italy not only recognized Ethiopia's territorial
gains but also its sovereignty.
 Constitution and Administration:
 Introduced the first-ever written constitution in 1896, delineating the powers of
the monarch.
 Reorganized the administrative structure, replacing the traditional nobility with
appointed governors, ensuring greater central control

 In understanding the roles of Tewodros II, Yohannes IV, and Menelik II, students can
delve deeper into the intricacies of Ethiopian history, gaining insights into how visionary
leadership can shape a nation's destiny amidst formidable challenges. These emperors not
only combated internal strife but also adeptly manoeuvred through the treacherous waters
of European colonial ambitions, ensuring Ethiopia's place in history as a beacon of
resistance and unity.

The major challenges during the territorial expansion

The major challenges faced during the territorial expansion of Ethiopia included:

1. Conflict with Italy: Ethiopia confronted Italy's expansion in the northern region, leading
to the Second Italo-Ethiopian War between 1935 and 1936, during which Italy annexed
Ethiopia into Italian East Africa

2. Resource Acquisition: The expansion was driven by the need to acquire sufficient
resources and save Ethiopia from European colonialism

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3. Diplomatic Struggles: Emperor Menelik II faced diplomatic challenges, such as the
mistranslation of the Treaty of Wichale, which led to a dispute with Italy over Ethiopia's
sovereignty

4. Military Resistance: The expansion involved military campaigns and conflicts, including
the Battle of Adwa in 1896, where Ethiopia secured a decisive victory against Italy, and
the subsequent death of Emperor Yohannes IV in 1889 at the Battle of Gallabat

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