PHARMACEUTICS-IA

(PHYSICAL PHARMACY)
PHARM-310

Prepared By
Shomaiza Andleeb Murad
 CHAPTER 03
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL
PRINCIPLES
 CONCENTRATION EXPRESSIONS
The Concentration of a Solution is defined as the relative amount of solute present in a
solution. The concentration of a solution can be expressed in a number of ways.
1) Percentage by weight (w / w %)
2) Percentage by volume (v / v %)
3) Weight by volume (w / v %)
4) Molarity (M)
5) Molality (m)
6) Normality (N)
7) Mole fraction (x)
8) Parts per million (ppm)
 Percent by Weight/Weight (w/w%)
Amount of solute in grams present in 100 grams of the solution. It has no unit. It is denoted by
w/w %.

The ratio of mass of solute to the mass of solution is termed as mass fraction. Mass fraction is
also known as weight fraction.
10% solution of sugar by mass means that 10 grams of sugar is present in 100 grams of the
solution, i.e., 10 grams of sugar has been dissolved in 90 grams of water.
 Percent by Volume/Volume (v/v %)
It is defined as the volume of solute in mL present in 100 mL solution. It has no unit. It is
denoted by v/v %

A 10% solution of HCl by volume means that 10 mL of liquid HCl is present in

100 mL of the solution.
 Percent by Weight/Volume (w/v %)

It is defined as the amount of solute in grams present in 100 mL of solution. Its unit is g/mL. It
is denoted by w/v %

A 10% mass by volume solution means that 10 gm solute is present in 100 mL of solution.
 Molarity

The molarity of a solution gives the number of moles of the solute present in 1 liter of the
solution. It is denoted by M.
Unit of Molarity: mol/L.

Thus, if one mole of a solute is present in 1 liter of the solution, the concentration of the solution
is said to be one molar.
 Molarity

1 M → Molar solution, i.e., Molarity is 1

0.5 M or M/2 → Semimolar
0.1 M or M/10 → Decimolar
0.01 M or M/100 → Centimolar
0.001 M or M/1000 → Millimolar
 Molality
Molality of a solution is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 Kg of the
solvent. It is denoted by m.
Unit of Molarity: mol/kg

Thus, if one mole of a solute is present in 1 kg of the solvent, the concentration of the solution is
said to be one molal.
Molality is the most convenient method to express the concentration because it involves the mass
of liquids rather than their volumes. It is also independent of the variation in temperature.
 Normality
The normality of a solution gives the number of gram equivalents of the solute present in one
liter of the solution. It is denoted by N.
Normality Unit: equivalent/L

Number of gram equivalent of solute = Mass of solute in gram/ equivalent weight of solute
Equivalent weight of solute (E) = Molar mass of solute/ Valence factor
Valence factor for base = acidity of base
Valence factor for acid = basicity of acid
Valence factor for element = valency
 Normality

Thus, if one gram equivalent of a solute is present in one litre of the solution, the concentration
of the solution is said to be one normal.
1N = Normal = One gram equivalent of the solute per litre of solution = Normality is 1
N/2 = Seminormal = 0.5 g equivalent of the solute per litre of solution = Normality is 0.5
N/10 = Decinormal = 0.1 g equivalent of the solute per litre of solution = Normality is 0.1
N/100 = Centinormal = 0.01 g equivalent of the solute per litre of solution = Normality is 0.01
N/1000 = Millinormal = 0.001 g equivalent of the solute per litre of solution = Normality is
0.001
 Mole Fraction
It is the ratio of the number of moles of solute and the total number of moles of solute and
solvent. It is denoted by X. It has no unit
 Parts Per million (ppm)

It is defined as the parts of a component per million parts (10 6) of the solution. It is widely used
when a solute is present in trace quantities. It is denoted by ppm. Its Unit is ppm.

PPM = Mass of Solute X 106

Mass of Solution
MOLARITY AND MOLALITY
NORMALITY & MOLARITY
 NUMERICALS

(1) Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution prepared by dissolving its
4 g in enough water to form 250 ml of the solution.

(2) Give the mass of NaOH dissolute to make solution of 500 cm3, 1/2 M
molar.

(3) Calculate the normality of NaOH solution formed by dissolving 2 gm

NaOH to make 250 ml solution.
 ANSWERS

Answer 1) 0.4 M
Answer 2) 10gm
Answer 3) 0.2 N
 IDEAL AND REAL SOLUTIONS

VOLATILE: Easily evaporated at normal temperatures.

VAPOR PRESSURE: The pressure exhibited by vapor present above a
liquid surface is known as vapor pressure. The vapor pressure of a
liquid varies with its temperature. As the temperature of a liquid
increases its vapor pressure also increases. Conversely, vapor pressure
decreases as the temperature decreases.
PARTIAL VAPOR PRESSURE: The pressure exerted by an individual
gas in a mixture as if it were alone in that system.
 PARTIAL VAPOUR PRESSURE

Partial vapor pressure can be applicable to all three states of matter: gases, liquids, and solids.
In the case of gases, the concept of partial pressure is commonly used to describe the pressure
exerted by an individual gas component within a mixture of gases.
In liquids, the concept of partial vapor pressure is related to Raoult's law. The partial vapor
pressure of a component in a liquid mixture represents the vapor pressure exerted by that
component when it is in equilibrium with the liquid mixture.
In solids, the concept of partial vapor pressure can also be relevant. The partial vapor pressure
of a solid in equilibrium with its own vapor represents the pressure exerted by the vapor phase
above the solid.
 RAOULT’S LAW

In 1887, François-Marie Raoult (French Chemist) describes

the behavior of ideal solutions by giving Rault’s Law.
It states that the partial pressure of a component in a mixture of ideal gases or the
vapor pressure of a component in a mixture of ideal liquids is proportional to its
mole fraction in the mixture.
In the context of ideal gases, Raoult's law states that the partial pressure of a
component in a gas mixture is equal to the product of the total pressure of the
mixture and the mole fraction of that component.
 RAOULT’S LAW
Thus, for two constituents A and B:

PA =PA°XA and PB = PB°XB

Where,
PA and PB are the partial vapor pressures of A and B.

PA° and PB° are the vapor pressures of the pure constituents.

XA and XB are the mole fractions of A and B.

On the basis of Raoult’s Law, liquid-liquid solutions can be of two types. They are:
 Ideal Solutions
 Non-ideal Solutions
 IDEAL SOLUTIONS
The solutions which obey Raoult’s Law at every range of concentration and at all temperatures
are Ideal Solutions. We can obtain ideal solutions by mixing two ideal components that are, solute
and a solvent having similar molecular size and structure.
There is no attraction between the molecules. Hence, it is convenient to define an ideal solution
as one in which there is no change in the properties of the components, other than dilution,
when they are mixed to form the solution. A solution in which the interaction between molecules
of the components does not differ from the interactions between the molecules of each
component.
No heat is evolved or absorbed during the mixing process. An ideal solution, in chemistry, is a
mixture that follows Raoult’s law.
 IDEAL SOLUTIONS

For Example, consider two liquids A and B, and mix them. The formed solution will
experience several intermolecular forces of attractions inside it, which will be:
A – A intermolecular forces of attraction
B – B intermolecular forces of attraction
A – B intermolecular forces of attraction
The solution is said to be an ideal solution, only when the intermolecular forces of
attraction between A – A, B – B and A – B are nearly equal.
 NUMERICAL

Q) What is the partial vapor pressure of benzene and ethylene chloride

in a solution at a mole fraction of benzene of 0.6? The vapor pressure of
pure benzene at 50 °C is 268 mm and the corresponding P B° for ethylene
chloride is 236 mm. Also calculate the total vapour pressure.
 SOLUTION
FOR BENZENE:
PA = PA°XA

PA = 268 x 0.6 = 160.8 mm

MOLE FRACTION OF ETHYLENE CHLORIDE
XA + XB = 1
XA = 1-XB
XA = 1-0.6 = 0.4

PB = PB°XB

PB= 236 x 0.4 = 94.4 mm

The total vapor pressure P is calculated as follows:

P = PA + P B
P = 160.8 + 94.4

P = 255.2 mm
 REAL OR NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

In many solutions, the cohesive attractions (between like

molecules) exceeds the adhesive attractions (between
unlike molecules) or vice versa. Such solutions are called
Real or Non- Ideal solutions and they do not follow the
Raoult’s law. The solute-solute and solvent-solvent
interaction is different from that of solute-solvent
interaction.
 REAL OR NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

Two types of deviations are recognized i.e.

NEGATIVE DEVIATION
When the adhesive attractions are more than the cohesive attractions, the vapor pressure of
the solution is less than that expected from the Raoult’s law.

POSITIVE DEVIATION
When the adhesive attractions are less than the cohesive attractions the vapor pressure of the
solution is more than that expected from the Raoult’s law.
 PARTIAL PRESSURE & VAPOUR PRESSURE
PARTIAL PRESSURE: The idea of partial pressure was first proposed
by the renowned scientist John Dalton. In a mixture of gases, each constituent gas has a partial
pressure. The total pressure of an ideal gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of the
gases in the mixture. Partial pressure is the force exerted by a gas. The sum of the partial
pressures of all the gases in a mixture equals the total pressure. Partial pressure is
extremely important in predicting the movement of gases.
VAPOR PRESSURE: It is the pressure caused by the evaporation of liquids. It is the pressure at
which a liquid and its vapor are in equilibrium at a given temperature. Three common factors that
influence vapor pressure are surface area, intermolecular forces and temperature. The vapor
pressure of a molecule differs at different temperatures.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PARTIAL PRESSURE & VAPOUR PRESSURE

The main difference between partial pressure and vapor pressure is that partial
pressure is the pressure exerted by an individual gas in a mixture as if it were
alone in that system, while the vapor pressure refers to the pressure exerted by
the vapor in its thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed state of liquid.
REFERENCE BOOK
THANK YOU!