EMM3707

Design of Manufacturing Systems

Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

Faculty of Engineering
Manual Assembly Lines
(Chapter 15)
 Chapter Contents

1. Fundamentals of Manual Assembly Lines

1.1 Assembly Workstations
1.2 Work Transport Systems
1.3 Line Pacing
1.4 Coping with Product Variety
2. Analysis of Single-Model Assembly Lines
2.1 Cycle Time and Workload Analysis
2.2 Repositioning Losses
2.3 The Line Balancing Problem
3. Line Balancing Algorithms
3.1 Largest Candidate Rule
3.2 Kilbridge and Wester Method
3.3 Ranked Positional Weights Method

3
 Introduction

 Most manufactured consumer products are assembled. Each

product consists of multiple components joined together by
various assembly processes.

 Some of the products are using Manual assembly system and

Automated Assembly System.

4
 Introduction
Factors favoring the use of manual assembly lines include the
following:
 Demand for the product is high or medium
 The products made on the line are identical or similar
 The total work required to assemble the product can be
divided into small work elements
 It is technologically impossible or economically infeasible to
automate the assembly operations.

5
 Fundamentals of Manual Assembly Lines

 A manual assembly line is a production line which consists

of sequence of workstations where assembly tasks are
performed by human workers.
 At each station, a worker performs a portion of the total work
on the unit.
 Manual assembly line technology has made a significant
contribution to the development of American industry in the
20th century.

6
 Assembly Workstations

 A workstation on a manual assembly line is a designated

location along the work flow path at which one or more
work elements are performed by one or more workers.
 Typical example assembly operations performed at
stations on a manual assembly line are Arc welding,
Brazing, Press fitting and etc.
 Some workstations are designed for workers to stand,
while others allow the workers to sit.

7
 1.2 Work Transport Systems

 In work transport systems, there are 2 basic ways to

accomplish the movement of work units along a manual
assembly line.
 Manual Methods of Work Transport: The units of product
are passed from station to station by the workers
themselves. Mode of operation of the methods is Starving
and Blocking.
However it will bring out issue of storage buffers and time delay between
the stations. In some cases, the work unit made at each station are
collected in batches and then moved to the next station.

 Mechanized Work Transport: Most of the transport mode

is using powered conveyors and other types of mechanized
material handling equipment.
In Mechanized Work Transport, the systems can be designed to provide paced
or unpaced operation of the line.

8
 1.2 Work Transport Systems
 Three major categories of work transport systems in production
lines are:
(a) continuous transport
(b) synchronous transport
(c) asynchronous transport

 Continuous Transport system uses a continuously moving

conveyor that operates at constant velocity.
 Continuous transport can be implemented in two ways:
(1) work units are fixed to the conveyor, and
(2) work units are removable from the conveyor

9
 1.2 Work Transport Systems

 In Synchronous transport system, all work units are moved

simultaneously between stations with a quick, discontinuous
motion, and then positioned at their respective stations.
 Synchronous is not common for manual lines, due to the
requirement that the task must be completed within a certain
time limit.
 This can cause workers work under stress on the assembly
workers and result in incomplete products.

10
 1.2 Work Transport Systems

 In an Asynchronous Transport, a work unit leaves a given

station when the assigned task has been completed and the
worker releases the unit.
 Work units move independently, rather than synchronously.
 This system tends to be forgiving of variations in worker task
times.

11
1.2 Work Transport Systems

12
 1.3 Line Pacing

 A manual assembly line operates at a certain cycle time that is

established to achieve the required production rate of the line.
 Pacing provides a discipline for the assembly line workers that
more or less guarantees a certain production rate.
 Manual assembly lines can be designed with three alternative
levels of pacing:
Pacing in assembly lines refers to the synchronization of
(1) rigid pacing workstations or workers to maintain a consistent
production rate. It's a crucial aspect of efficient
(2) pacing with margin manufacturing.

(3) no pacing

Reference: Faccio, M., Gamberi, M., & Bortolini, M. (2016). Hierarchical approach for paced mixed-
model assembly line balancing and sequencing with jolly operators. International journal of
production research, 54(3), 761-777. 13
 1.4 Coping with Product Variety

 Product Variety is very important because it increases

consumers' likelihood of finding a good match with their
preferences.
 Products are often assembled in batches when demand for
each product is medium. It is generally more economical to use
one assembly line to produce several products.
 Three types of assembly line can be distinguished:
(1) single model: produces only one product in large quantities. Every work
unit is identical, so the task performed at each station is the same for all
products
(2) batch model: produces each product in batches. Workstations are set up
to produce the required quantity of the first product, then the stations are
reconfigured to produce the next product, and so on.
(3) mixed model: also produces more than one model; however, the models
are not produced in batches; instead, they are made simultaneously on the
same line. While one station is working on one model, the next station is
processing a different model.
14
 2. Analysis of Single-Model Assembly Lines
2.1(Cycle Time and Workload Analysis)

The assembly line must be designed to achieve a production

rate, Rp, sufficient to satisfy demand for the product.

where
Rp = average hourly production rate, units/hr
Da = annual demand for the single product to be made on the
line, units/yr
Sw = number of shifts/workers
Hsh = hours per shift, hr/shift

15
 2. Analysis of Single-Model Assembly Lines
2.1(Cycle Time and Workload Analysis)
 The cycle time must take into account the reality that some
production time will be lost due to occasional equipment failures,
power outages, etc.

where
E =line efficiency;
Rp = required production rate

 The number of workers on a production line can be determine

using formulae below.

where
w = number of workers on the line
WL = workload to be accomplished in a given time period, min/hr
AT = available time per worker during the period, min/hr/worker
16
 Example
A small electrical appliance is to be produced on a single-model
assembly line. The work content of assembling the product has
been reduced to the work elements listed in Table 4 The table
also lists the times for each element and the precedence order
in which they must be performed. The line is to be balanced for
an annual demand of 100,000 units/yr. The line will operate 50
wk/yr, 5 shifts/wk, and 7.5 hr/shift. There will be one worker per
station. Previous experience suggests that the uptime efficiency
for the line will be 96%, and repositioning time lost per cycle will
be 0.08 min.
Determine
(a) total work content time Twc,
(b) required hourly production rate Rp to achieve the annual
demand,
(c) cycle time Tc,
17
Example

18
Answer

19
 2.2 Repositioning losses

Problem: Some “time” will be lost at each station for repositioning

of the work unit or worker.

Cycle time on an assembly line

Slowest station (the longest station time)
Idle time = Zero
Time cycle

Service time for each station

Repositioning time

Ts = Max {Tsi} ≤Tc – Tr

Where:
Repositioning time, Tr = time available each cycle for the worker to position
Service time, Ts = time available each cycle for the worker to work on the product
Tsi = service time for station i, i=1,2,..,n 20
 2.3 The Line Balancing Problem
 The work content performed on an assembly line consists
of many separate and distinct work elements. However,
the sequence in which these elements can be performed
is restricted.
 At bottleneck station, idle time is equal to zero.

21
 2.3 The Line Balancing Problem

 Assembly Line Balancing problem is to arrange the individual

processing and assembly tasks at the workstations so that the total
time required at each workstation is approximately the same.
 If the time required in each station is identical then the line is said to be
perfectly balanced and no delays occur at the workstations.

Problem
 To assign the individual work elements to workstations so that all
workers have an equal amount of work to perform
 It is not possible to divide work content time evenly among workers.

Precedence constraint
 Variation in work element times.
 Restriction on the sequence of work elements can be performed.
 Some elements must be done before others.
 Precedence constraints can be presented graphically in precedence
diagram. 22
 2.3 The Line Balancing Problem

 There are two important concepts in line balancing to

separate the total work content which are minimum rational
work elements and precedence constraints.

 Minimum Rational Work Elements is a small amount of

work that has a specific limited objective for example: as
adding a component to the base part, joining two
components, or performing some other small portion of the
total work content.

 It makes no sense to divide these tasks into smaller

elements of work such as drilling a through-hole in a piece
of sheet metal.

23
 2.3 The Line Balancing Problem

 Precedence Constraints is the variation in element times

that make it difficult to obtain equal service times for all
stations.
 For example, to create a threaded hole, the hole must be
drilled before it can be tapped.
 Normally, Precedence constraints is be presented graphically
in the form of a precedence diagram, which is a network
diagram.

24
 Example

Draw Precedence Diagram for the following Assembly line

25
 Precedence Diagram

0.11

6
: Work elements

0.7 0.32 0.27 : Sequences

0.2 3 7 9

1
0.1 0.6 0.5 0.12

0.4 4 8 11 12
0.38
2
0.3 10
5
26
 3. Line Balancing Algorithms

A small electrical appliance is to be produced on a single-model

assembly line. The work content of assembling the product has been
reduced to the work elements listed in Table 15.4. The table also lists
the times for each element and the precedence order in which they
must be performed. The line is to be balanced for an annual demand
of 100,000 units/yr. The line will operate 50 wk/yr, 5 shifts/wk, and
7.5 hr/shift. There will be one worker per station. Previous
experience suggests that the uptime efficiency for the line will be
96%, and repositioning time lost per cycle will be 0.08 min.
Determine
(a) total work content time Twc,
(b) required hourly production rate Rp to achieve the annual demand
(c) cycle time Tc,
(d) theoretical minimum number of workers required on the line
(e) service time Ts to which the line must be balanced.
27
3. Line Balancing Algorithms

28
 3. Line Balancing Algorithms

There are multiples ways to balance the production line:

 Largest Candidate Rule

 Kilbridge and Wester Method

 Ranked Positional Weight Method

29
 1. Largest Candidate Rule

• Work elements are arranged in descending order according to Tek value,

largest Tek at the top of the list.
Steps:
1. Assign elements to worker at the 1st station by starting at the top of the list and
selecting the 1st element satisfies:
a. precedence requirement

b.

Start back at the top of the list for subsequent assignment,

2. When no more element can be assigned without exceeding Ts, the proceed to
the next station,
3. Repeat step 1 and 2, until all elements have been assigned.
30
 Example- Largest Candidate Rule
Suppose in a manufacturing line, the following operations (work elements)
should be completed to make a product. Determine how many workstations
are needed if the maximum service time in each station should not
exceeded than 1.0 minutes.

Work Tek Preceded

element (min) by
3 0.8 1
6 0.6 3
10 0.6 6,9
1 0.5 -
8 0.5 3,5
7 0.4 4,5
2 0.3 1
9 0.3 7,8
4 0.2 2
5 0.1 2 31
 Example- Largest Candidate Rule
First we should draw the precedence diagram. It will help us to easily follow
the correct sequence of work elements while designing the workstations:

Work Tek Preceded

element (min) by
4
3 0.8 1
6 0.6 3 2 7
10 0.6 6,9
1 0.5 -
1 9
5
8 0.5 3,5
7 0.4 4,5
3 8
2 0.3 1
10
9 0.3 7,8
6
4 0.2 2
5 0.1 2
32
 Example- Largest Candidate Rule 4
2 7
Then, we will start to identify which work elements are
1 5 9
possible to be set in the first workstation. We should
pay attention to the precedencies between activities. 3 8
10
While we recognize the candidates we will sort them 6
in an ascending order in terms of Tek:
Work Tek Preceded Work Tek Station time
Station element (min)
element (min) by (min)
3 0.8 1 1 1 0.5
6 0.6 3 2 0.3
10 0.6 6,9 4 0.2 1.0
1 0.5 -
8 0.5 3,5
7 0.4 4,5
2 0.3 1
9 0.3 7,8
4 0.2 2
5 0.1 2
33
 Example- Largest Candidate Rule 2
4
7
1 9
When the maximum allowed service time is reached for a 5
workstation (Ts<= 1 min), then the next series of possible 3 8
10
work elements will form the second work station: 6

Work Tek Preceded Work Tek Station time

Station element (min)
element (min) by (min)
3 0.8 1 1 1 0.5
6 0.6 3 2 0.3
10 0.6 6,9 4 0.2 1.0
1 0.5 - 2 3 0.8
8 0.5 3,5 5 0.1 0.9
7 0.4 4,5
2 0.3 1
9 0.3 7,8
4 0.2 2
5 0.1 2
34
 4

Example- Largest Candidate Rule1 2 7

9
5
The rest of the work stations will follow the 3 8
10
same rules (precedence and service time): 6

Work Tek Preceded Work Tek Station time

Station element (min)
element (min) by (min)
3 0.8 1 1 1 0.5
6 0.6 3 2 0.3
10 0.6 6,9 4 0.2 1.0
1 0.5 - 2 3 0.8
8 0.5 3,5 5 0.1 0.9
7 0.4 4,5 3 6 0.6
2 0.3 1 7 0.4 1.0
9 0.3 7,8 4 8 0.5
4 0.2 2 9 0.3 0.8
5 0.1 2 5 10 0.6 0.6
W2 W3 W4 W5
W1
1, 2, 4 3, 5 6, 7 8, 9 10 35
 Evaluation of Line Balancing

 Line balance efficiency, Eb

 Balance delay, d

 Smoothness index, SI

where,
Twc : work content time per product [min/unit]
w : number of worker
Ts : max. available service on the line [min/cycle]
Tsi : service time at station i
n : number of station in the line
36
 Evaluation of Line Balancing
Compute the balance delay for the previous example
Station 3
0.2 Line balance efficiency:
Station 1 4 0.4 Twc 4.3
7
Eb    0.86
wTs 5(1.0)
0.3
2 5 Balance delay, d = 1 – Eb = 0.14 = 14%
0.5 Station 4
0.1
1 Smoothness index:
0.3 = (0  0.01  0  0.04  0.16 )
3 8 9 Station 5
= 0.21
0.8 0.6 0.5 0.6
Station 2 6 10 = 0.458

Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5

Work Element Element Element Element Element
Flow 1,2,4 3,5 6,7 8,9 10
Physical sequence of stations with assigned work elements. 37
 2. Kilbridge and Wester Method

 Kilbridge and Wester Method is a heuristic procedure that selects work

elements for assignment to stations according to their position in the
precedence diagram.

 This overcomes one of the difficulties with the largest candidate rule in
which an element may be selected because of a high Te value but
irrespective of its position in the precedence diagram.

 In general, the Kilbridge and

Wester method provides a
superior line balance solution to
that provided by the largest
candidate rule (although not for
this example problem).

38
 Example- Kilbridge and Wester Method
First we should draw the precedence diagram. It will help us to easily follow
the correct sequence of work elements while designing the workstations:

Work Tek Preceded

element (min) by
4
3 0.8 1
6 0.6 3 2 7
10 0.6 6,9
1 0.5 -
1 9
5
8 0.5 3,5
7 0.4 4,5
3 8
2 0.3 1
10
9 0.3 7,8
6
4 0.2 2
5 0.1 2
39
 Example- Kilbridge and Wester Method
In the next step, we will draw a table with columns showing different
possible stages where in each stage possible work elements will be drawn:

I II III IV V VI

2 7

1 9
5

3 8

10
6

40
 Example- Kilbridge and Wester Method
Due to the existed precedencies, it seems that activities 3 and 6 have free
float and can be forwarded:

I II III IV V VI I II III IV V VI

4 4

2 7 2 7

1 9 1 9
5 5

3 8 3 3 8

10 10
6 6 6 6

41
 Example- Kilbridge and Wester Method
Now start from the first column and write work elements to form work stations until the
maximum service time allows. At each stage follow the largest candidate rule. If a work
element can be placed in more than one column, write all possible columns for it.
Work Tek Preceded
I II III IV V VI element Column by
(min)
0.2 1 I 0.5 -
0.3 4 0.4 3 II,III 0.8 1

2 7
2 II 0.3 1
0.5 0.1 0.3 6 III,IV,V 0.6 3
1
5 9 4 III 0.2 2
0.8 0.5 5 III 0.1 2
3 3 8 0.6 8 IV 0.5 3,5
0.6 10 7 IV 0.4 4,5
6 6 6
9 V 0.3 7,8
10 VI 0.6 6,9
42
 Example-
Station Work element Column Tek (min)
Kilbridge and Wester Method
1 1 I 0.5
2 II 0.3
Work Tek Preceded 4 III 0.2
element Column by 2 3 III 0.8
(min) 5 III 0.1
1 I 0.5 - 3 6 III 0.6
3 II,III 0.8 1 7 IV 0.4
4 8 IV 0.5
2 II 0.3 1 9 V 0.3
6 III,IV,V 0.6 3 5 10 VI 0.6
4 III 0.2 2
5 III 0.1 2 I II III IV V VI
8 IV 0.5 3,5 0.2
7 IV 0.4 4,5
0.3 4 0.4
9 V 0.3 7,8
10 VI 0.6 6,9 2 7
0.5 0.1 0.3
1 5 9
0.8 0.5
3 3 8 0.6
0.6 10
6 6 6
43
 Example- Kilbridge and Wester Method

Station Work element Column Tek (min) Station time Line balance efficiency:
1 1 I 0.5 Twc 4.3
2 II 0.3
Eb    0.86
wTs 5(1.0)
4 III 0.2 1.0
2 3 III 0.8
Balance delay, d = 1 – Eb = 0.14 = 14%
5 III 0.1 0.9
Smoothness index:
3 6 III 0.6
7 IV 0.4 1.0 = (0  0.01  0  0.04  0.16 )
4 8 IV 0.5 0.21
=
9 V 0.3 0.8
5 10 VI 0.6 0.6
= 0.458

Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5

Work Element Element Element Element Element
Flow 1,2,4 3,5 6,7 8,9 10
Physical sequence of stations with assigned work elements.

44
 3. Ranked Positional Weights Method

 Ranked Positional Weight (RPW) value is computed for each element.

 RPW take in account both Tek and its position in the precedence
diagram.
Steps:
1. Calculate the ranked positional weight (RPW) value for each element by
summing the element’s Tek together with the Tek values for all the
elements that follow it in the arrow chain of the precedence diagram,
2. List the elements in descending order of their RPW value,
3. Assign element to stations according to RPW, avoiding precedence
constraint and time cycle violations (Algorithms proceed using the same
steps in LCR.

45
 Example- Ranked Positional Weights Method

(a) Use the ranked positional weights

Work Tek Preceded
method to assign work elements to element (min) by
stations. 1 0.5 -
(b) Compute the balance delay and 2 0.3 1
smoothness index for your solution. 3 0.8 1
4 0.2 2
5 0.1 2
6 0.6 3
7 0.4 4,5
8 0.5 3,5
9 0.3 7,8
10 0.6 6,9

46
 Example- Ranked Positional Weights Method
Elements ranked according to RPW
0.2
Work Tek (min)
4 0.4 RPW Predecessor
element
7 1 4.3 0.5 -
0.3
2 5 3 2.8 0.8 1
0.5
0.1 2 2.4 0.3 1
1
0.3 5 1.9 0.1 2
3 8 9 4 1.5 0.2 2
0.8 0.5 8 1.4 0.5 3,5
6 10 7 1.3 0.4 4,5
0.6 0.6 6 1.2 0.6 3
9 0.9 0.3 7,8
Quick example:
10 0.6 0.6 6,9
RWP7= 0.4+0.3+0.6 = 1.3
RWP2= 0.3+(0.2+0.1)+(0.4+0.5)+0.3+0.6 = 1.3 Ts = 1.0 min
47
 Example- Ranked Positional Weights Method

Station Work element Tek (min) Station time Line balance efficiency:
1 1 0.5 Twc 4.3
2 0.3 Eb    0.86
wTs 5(1.0)
5 0.1 0.9
2 3 0.8
Balance delay, d = 1 – Eb = 0.14 = 14%
4 0.2 1.0
Smoothness index:
3 8 0.5
7 0.4 0.9 = (0.01  0  0.01  0.01  0.16 )
4 6 0.6
= 0.19
9 0.3 0.9
5 10 0.6 0.6 = 0.435

Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5

Work Element Element Element Element Element
Flow 1,2,5 3,4 8,7 6,9 10
Physical sequence of stations with assigned work elements.
48