The Use of Statistics

in Outcomes
Assessment
I. General Concepts on Statistics and
Learning Inquiry

Definition of Statistics

Statistics is a science of discipline. It is a

branch of mathematics that deals with the
collection, organization, presentation,
computation and interpretation of data which
are the, outcomes of learning” (Santos et al,
2000)
 Two general types of statistical
analysis:
A. Descriptive statistics
uses methods to summarize a collection of
data by describing what was observed using numbers or
graphs.

B. Inferential statistics

also called predictive statistics, uses

methods to draw patterns in the collected data, and then
makes conclusions, predictions or forecasts about a
group or about a process being studied.
Statistical Methods
Statistics is useful in the teaching-learning process, along
several research-based inquiries:
1. Experimental Studies

These inquiries investigates causes, in

addition to drawing conclusions on the effect of changes in
elements (called variables) being studied.
2. Inferential Studies
Data are gathered and the correlations between
intervention (predictors) and the result derived from a
single group is investigated.
Generally, statistical inquiries observe
five basic steps:
A) Planning the research-based inquiry around size,
hypothesis, variability, subjects, etc;
B) designing the experiment by blocking to reduce
error; random assignment for unbiased estimates, and
mapping the procedures;

C) implementation and analyzing data;

D) documentation and presentation of results of the
study.
II. Conceptualization,
Operationalization and
Measurement
Conceptualization
It is a process where instructor communicate
with concepts about external realities.
• Concepts as Constructs:
There are three classes of phenomena which can
be statistically measured:
(a) Direct observables
(b) Indirect observables
(c) Constructs or creations we form in the mind
resulting from observations.
Indicators and Dimension
• Indicator is a sign of the presence of a
concept (variable) under study.
• Dimension is a specific aspect of a
concept combined into groups or sub-
groups, such as compassion toward
neighbors/fellow
nationals/foreigners/animals/plants.
Creating Conceptual Order

Concepts can become more clarified

by a process of clarification called
specification. This can also be done by
categorization or the ordering or ranking
of data.
Conceptualization (process to specify what we mean)

Nominal definition (assigned to term, not the

real entity)

Operational
definition (specifies how a concept is measured)
Levels of Measurement
• Variables are a logical set of attributes, e.g.
gender. On the other hand, an attribute is a
quality or characteristics of something, e.g..
male, female. Attributes may represent any of
the four levels of measurement:
Nominal measure
A level of measurement
describing a variable that has attributes
which are different, e.g. gender, birthplace,
college, major, etc.
Ordinal measure
A level of measurement
describing a variable with attributes that can
be in a rank-order along some dimension.
Interval measure
A level of measurement describing a
variable whose attributes are rank-ordered and
have equal distances between adjacent attributes.
Ratio measure
A level of measurement describing a
variable with attributes that have all the qualities
of nominal, ordinal and interval and based on a
”true zero” point, e.g. age, length of residence in a
place, etc.
III. Indexes, Scales,
Typologies
• The use of an index or scale may help to explain
and elicit understanding of concepts in a range of
conceptual variations.
• In an index, scores for individual attributes are
constructed. On the other hand in a scale, scores
are assigned to patterns of ideas.
• A scale is constructed by assigning scores to
patterns of responses according to higher and
lower degrees of civic participation.
• Typology
– Is a classification of observations in terms of
attributes on two or more variables.

Quantification Technique
Use to subject data or concepts for better
understanding, analysis, or statistical
interpretation.
Quantification of Data
Univariate Analysis
– This is an analysis of a single variable for purposes
of description.
Bivariate Analysis
A bivariate relationship refers to two variables.
Tests of Statistical Significance
Given the results of findings, there are
inferential statistics which can assist in
pursuading the audience/readers as to the
significance, strength, deserved interest in a
completed research. These are called
parametric tests of significance.
 Other tests of statistical
significance:
Chi Square
This is useful in social science and is
based o the null hypothesis: the
assumption that there is no relationship
between two variable.
An illustration of Chi Square

Expected Frequencies Men Women Total

Attended alumni affair 28 42 70
Did not attend affair 12 18 30
Total 40 60 100

Observed frequencies
Attended 20 50 70
Did not attend 20 10 30
Total 40 60 100

Observed minus Expected

Divided by Expected
Attended 2.29 1.52X = 12.70
Did not attend 5.33 3.56 = <.001
Path Analysis

It is casual model for

understanding relationship between many
variables. It is a useful graphic illustration of
relationships among several variables which
assumes that the values of one variable are
used by another.
Diagramming the impact of Globalization

Global
Neo- 3rd World
Free colonialism Economies
Trade

Developed
National
Economies
Sectors:
labor/business
/industry
Other Multivariate Techniques
• Time-Series Analysis
This represents changes in one or more variables over
time.
• Factor Analysis
This is used to discover patterns among the variations
in values of several factors.
• Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Cases under study are combined into groups
representing an independent variable, and the extent to
which the group differ from one another is analyzed in
relation to some dependent variable.
 Other multivariate techniques are the
Discriminant Analysis, Log Linear models
and the Geographic Information systems
which require more sophisticated statistical
procedures which can be learned in
Statistics or formal Research classes.