THE ESSENTIALS OF RESEARCH

THE MAJOR DIVISIONS OF RESEARCH

Research may be broadly classified as descriptive, historical, and

experimental.

The Descriptive Method

This method is employed in research when the principal aims are to describe
the nature of a situation as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the
causes of particular phenomena (Sevilla et al., 1992). It focuses on the present
time; it discusses what is observed now. It has no control over what is.

The following are the types of descriptive research.

Case Study. This involves studying one person or just a few persons over a
considerable period of time. It entails discovering and studying all the important
variables which have contributed to the history of the subject.

Survey. This involves a relatively large number of cases and is classified into
four categories according to scope and subject matter.

The categories are:

Census of Tangibles which covers a small population where the

variables are concrete. The responses are, thus, simple and accurate;

There is less contradiction in the data since the variables measured are
well defined and clear. Examples of these are a profile of the teachers in a
particular school according to professional qualifications, the number of students in
each college or institute, and a count of the internet cafés in the vicinity of the
university.

Census of Intangibles which deals with constructs based on indirect

measures;

The variables measured are not directly observable such as the

alumni’s loyalty to their school, students’ study motivation, and teachers’ career
fulfillment.

Sample Survey of Tangibles which makes use of the sampling

technique;

In certain cases, the objective of the research requires the data from
large groups wherein the census is not advisable. The sampling technique becomes
useful and practical then.
 2

Sample Survey of Intangibles which deals with the measurement of

psychological or sociological constructs;

The researcher also engages in this type of survey when he compares

a large population where the variables are not directly observable.

Correlational Study. This is undertaken to determine the extent to which

different variables are related to each other in the population of interest. Here, one
can determine how much variation is caused by one variable in relation with the
variation caused by another variable.

Developmental Study. This employs longitudinal and cross-sectional

methods. The longitudinal method studies sample participants over an extended
period of time, while the cross-sectional method studies participants of various
characteristics at the same point in time.

Follow-up Study. This intends to investigate the subsequent development

of the participants after a specified treatment or condition.

Documentary Analysis. The data gathering here is performed by examining

records and documents.

Trend Analysis. This type of study aims to seek future status, specifically to
project the demands or needs of the people in the future.

The Historical Method

This method of research is the critical investigation of events, developments,

and experiences of the past, the careful weighing of evidence of the validity of
sources of information of the past, and the interpretation of the weighed evidence
(Kerlinger, 1972, as cited by Catane, 2000).

Sevilla and co-authors (1992) enumerate the following as the three major
procedures involved in this method: formulating the problem, gathering source
materials, and criticizing these materials. They further explained that the chief
primary sources in data collection are documents and remains. As these are the
first witnesses to a fact, they are the only solid bases for historical investigation.
Secondary sources, whose writers did not experience or witness the events but
merely gathered from those who actually did, can contribute in giving information
in the inavailability of primary sources. A system of note-taking is necessary to
have an orderly record of the data gathered.

Historical research requires subjecting the sources to external and internal

criticisms. In making external criticism of the data, the historical investigator
verifies their genuiness as he deals with form and appearance rather than with the
meaning of the data. Internal criticism, on the other hand, involves determining
 3

the meaning and trustworthiness of the statements found within the document. The
researcher here finds out the real meaning of the statements, the observer’s
competence, truthfulness and honesty.

The Experimental Study

The Nature of an Experimental Study

In an experimental study, the researcher performs the following:

manipulation of at least one independent variable; control of other relevant
variables; and observation of the effect on one or more dependent variables. The
independent variable, also referred to as the experimental variable, the cause, or
the treatment, is that activity or characteristic believed to make a difference on the
dependent variable (Sevilla et al., 1992). The dependent variable, also known as
the criterion variable, effect, or posttest, is the outcome of the study, the change or
difference in groups which occurs as a result of manipulation of the independent
variable.

The Experimental Process

The basic steps performed in other types of research such as selection and
definition of a problem, selection of subjects and measuring instruments, selection
of a design, execution of procedures, analysis of data, and formulation of
conclusions are also present in an experimental study.

However, an experimental study is always guided by at least one hypothesis

which states an expected causal relationship between two variables. The researcher
in this type of research is on the action from the very start: he forms and selects
the groups, decides what will be done to each group, tries to control all other
relevant factors except the changes which he has introduced, and observes and
measures the effect on the groups at the end of the study.

The aforementioned groups are typically the experimental group, which is the
one that receives a new or novel treatment or a treatment under investigation, and
the control group, which either receives a different treatment or is treated as usual.
After the time of treatment or intervention, the investigator re-administers a test of
the dependent variable and then determines the significance of difference between
the groups.

Manipulation and Control: Characteristics of the Experimental Study

Manipulation of at least one independent variable is that characteristic of

experimental study that distinguishes it from the other research methods. There
are variables which are non-manipulative. Sex, socio-economic status, and
mental ability are examples of these. Teaching strategies, management styles,
work instruments and devices are examples of manipulative variables. These are
variables which can be assigned to subjects randomly.
 4

Control, another unique characteristic of this type of study, refers to the

efforts on the part of the researcher to remove the influence of any variable (other
than the independent variable) which might affect the performance of the
dependent variable. There are two kinds of variables that need to be controlled:
subject variables such as mental ability, reading readiness, reading ability, socio-
economic status, etc. and environmental variables such as learning materials,
residence, etc.

BUILDING COHERENCE IN CERTAIN ESSENTIAL PHASES OF

RESEARCH WRITING

Coherence means consistency, unity and rationality. It is a goal of the

researcher to present a paper whose parts are unified, forming a clear theme, and
whose discussions flow with logical necessity into the conclusions. The thesis or
dissertation writer would like his title, statement of the problem, hypotheses, and
research paradigm to achieve and present oneness. May the following discussions
contribute to achieving this.

Identifying the Variables in Research

Variables are the properties studied in research (Catane, 2000). These

properties, which are the foci of the study, are measured and subjected to tests of
relationship, association or difference. Their taking different values or change in
values is of interest to the researcher. Variables are also regarded as concepts,
such as sex, age, IQ, climate, achievement, grades, education, socio-economic
status, etc., which stand for variation within a class or objects.

Types of Variables

Independent Variable. Also called stimulus variable, this is that which is

capable of effecting change in the other variable. It is that which is measured,
manipulated, or selected by the experimenter or researcher to determine its
relationship to an observed phenomenon.

Dependent Variable. It is that factor which is observed and measured to

determine the effect of the independent variable.

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

The presumed cause The presumed effect
The antecedent The consequence
The variable predicted to The variable predicted from
Represented by the mathematical Represented by the mathematical
category X category Y
 5

Moderator Variable. Considered as the secondary type of independent

variable, this is that factor which is measured, manipulated, or selected by the
researcher to discover whether it modifies the relationship of the independent and
dependent variable to the observed phenomenon.

Examples of moderator variables with related independent and dependent

variables:

Independent Variable Dependent Variable Moderator Variables

Organizational Climate
>Type of Decision Making
> Type of Institution
Student Behavior > Students’ Socio-
Economic Status
> School Size

Control Variable. The term moderator variable in descriptive research is

synonymously termed as control variable in the experimental type of research. It
is a variable whose effect/s must be neutralized or controlled.

Intervening Variable. It is that factor which theoretically affects the

observed phenomenon but cannot be seen, measured or manipulated. Its
effect must be inferred from the effects of the independent and moderator variables
on the observed phenomenon. An intervening variable is a thing/object or stimulus
from the environment which impinges on the effect of independent variable on the
dependent variable but which cannot be measured.

Examples of intervening variables with the independent, dependent, and

moderator/control variables related to them:

Moderator/Control
Independent Dependent Variable Intervening
Variable Variable Variable

>Type of Decision > Environmental

Organizational Student Behavior Making Noise
Climate > Type of Institution > Mood of the
> Students’ Socio- Subjects
Economic Status > Ventilation of
> School Size the Room

Determining the Independent and Dependent Variables in a

Descriptive Study

1. The phenomenon or problem situation that led the researcher to probe or

undertake research serves as the basis of the dependent variables.
 6

2. Related literature and previously conducted studies can help the

researcher to determine the suitable independent variables.

The initial probe on the problem situation or a cursory look at the

phenomenon, building impressions in it, is often a wise way to identify the
independent variables for the study.

Writing the Title

Sevilla et al. (1992) present the following as the functions that the title of
the study serves:

1. It draws, in a summary form, the content of the entire investigation.

2. It serves as a frame of reference for the whole thesis.
3. It enables the researcher to claim the title as his own.
4. It helps other researchers to refer to the work for possible survey of
theory.

Structure of a Good Title

Garcia (2003) suggested that a title should:

1. be clear and specific, as the contents of the study are clearly shown in it;

Specificity means mentioning the target population or the research local.

2. show relationship among the characteristics or factors being studied;

A good title implies whether the research will focus on differences, effects or
associations between and among variables to be investigated.

3. be brief but concise.

Sevilla and colleagues (1992) agree with Baker and Schutz (1972) that the
title should have a maximum of 20 substantive words, function words not
included in the counting, and that the phrases “A Study of”, “An Investigation of”,
“An Inquiry Into”, “A Comparison of” be dropped from the title since all theses and
dissertations are investigations.

Examples of improved titles: (Sevilla et al., 1992)

Original Title Improved Title

Smoking Behavior of Grade Ten High Peer and Other Influences on Smoking
School Students Behavior Among Grade Ten High
School Students in Cainta, Rizal
 7

Homeroom Guidance and Study Habits The Effect of Homeroom Guidance on the
and Attitudes of Grade IV Pupils Study Habits of Grade IV Pupils in
Two Districts of the Division of
City Schools, Manila

Verbal Creativity Among Senior High Gender and Mental Ability Differences in
School Students Verbal Creativity Among Senior High
School Students in Selected
Schools in Lipa City

Stating the Research Problem

Garcia (2003) presents the following as the two ways of stating research
problems: declarative or descriptive manner and question form.

The declarative form is usually used when stating the main problem of the
study while the question form is used when stating the sub-problems or specific
problems of the proposed research.

Below is an example:

Main problem - This study attempted to find out the extent to which the
first year college students of NCBA-Cubao use the different learning styles, and how
the latter influenced their academic performance during the first semester of the
school year 2003 – 2004.

Sub-problems - Specifically, it aimed to answer the following questions:

1. To what extent do the NCBA-Cubao first year college students use the
following learning styles:
1.1 visual;
1.2 auditory; and
1.3 kinesthetic-tactile?

2. What is the profile of the student-respondents according to the

aforementioned styles of learning?

3. How was their academic performance during the first semester of the
school year 2003 – 2004 based on the following:

3.1 percentage of subjects passed, and

3.2 general average?

4. How do the students compare in their academic performance when they

are categorized according to learning style? (Briana, 2004)
 8

How to state the research problem?

Garcia (2003) gave the following rules in stating the problem of the study.

1. The researcher must be clear as to what he really wants to accomplish.

Certainty with what he wants to find out will definitely enable him to state the
problem easily and correctly.

2. The research problem must be stated in a sentence showing what the

researcher wants to describe, explain or predict.

3. Once the main problem has been stated, the following questions must be
answered by the researcher:

> Is the problem statement clear?

Indication of clarity: Being able to identify what exactly is to be
investigated from the problem statement

> Does it provide adequate focus and direction for research?

Indication of focus and direction: Researcher has knowledge on
what is to be done after stating the main
problem.

> Does it identify the key factors or variables of the study?

Characteristics of Sub-Problems Clearly and Accurately Stated

1. Each sub-problem is a completely researchable unit.

2. Interpretation of data is apparent with each sub-problem.

3. The sub-problems add up to the totality of the problem.

3.1 The sub-problems formulated have coherence; they are connected.

In a descriptive research, first questions are usually about

identification or profile of nominal data (e.g. gender, civil status) and metric data
(e.g. age,intelligence quotient, height), and followed by questions about
significance of relationship or difference among the variables.

3.2 The sub-problems will aid the researcher in covering all the
significant areas of the main problem.
 9

Formulating the Hypothesis

Certeza (1998) in her lecture defined hypothesis as an assertive statement of

tentative relationship between two or more variables. It is also an informed or
shrewd guess, with a reasonable chance of being right, formulated and tentatively
adopted to serve as the investigator’s eyes in seeking answers to questions.

Characteristics of a Hypothesis

A good hypothesis, according to Garcia (2003), should:

1. be simple and specific;
2. be stated in a empirically testable form;
3. be related to the existing body of knowledge; and
4. indicate the specific nature of connection (i.e. difference, relationship).

Forms of Hypotheses

1. Null Hypothesis. This is a statement indicating the non-existence of

difference, relationship, or association between two or more variables or factors.

2. Alternative Hypothesis. This states the nature of the connection

between or among the variables that the researcher expects.

The null hypothesis is often used in many researches because errors in

accepting and rejecting the hypothesis can be easier avoided if the expectations are
in the null form (Sevilla et al., 1992). Garcia (2003) also explained that no
statistical tests have been developed in testing the alternative or research
hypothesis.

Coherence between the Research Problem and the Hypothesis

The hypothesis should be related to the research problem. While the problem
is stated in question form, the hypothesis is stated in declarative form (Catane,
2000). They are similar, however, since they state the relation of two variables and
measurability.

Examples:

Problem: How do the NCBA- Cubao first year college students compare in
their academic performance when they are categorized
according to learning style? (Briana, 2004)

Ho: There is no significant difference in the academic performance of

the NCBA-Cubao first year college students when they are
categorized according to learning style.

Problem: Is there a significant relationship between the stress levels of

 10

the teachers and their adjustment status?

Ho: There is no significant relationship between the levels of stress

of
the teachers and their adjustment status (Briana, 1999)

Structuring the Research Paradigm

Characteristics of the Research Paradigm

1. While the theoretical framework is the theory on which the study is based,
the research paradigm is the operationalization of this theory (Garcia,
2003).
2. It shows the direction of the study or the researcher’s own position on the
problem.
3. It shows the relationships of the different constructs that the researcher
wants to investigate.
4. It may be the researcher’s model patterned after previous models that he
had analyzed leading to the creation of a new conceptual framework.

A sample Research Paradigm

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Extent to which the Ascertaining the

NCBA-Cubao First Degree to which the
Year College Students Students’ Learning
Use the Following Styles Influence
Styles of Learning: Academic Performance
 Visual
Determination A Learning Style
 Auditory
of the Inventory that Will be
 Kinesthetic –
Significance of Part of Each Students’
Tactile
Relationship in Psychological
the Academic Assessment, which is
Profile of the
Performance of an Important Tool in
Student-Respondents
the First Year Counseling
in Terms of Learning
College
Styles
Students, With Better Understanding
Their Learning of Each Student’s
Academic
Styles as Individuality as a
Performance of the
Variate Learner
Students During the
First Semester of the
Schemes to Make
School Year 2003 –
 11

2004 Based on: Teaching Strategies

 Percentage of More Eclectic and
Subjects Compatible to the
Passed, and Varied Learning Styles
 General of the Students
Average

Figure 1
The Research Paradigm
The Influence of Learning Styles on the Academic Performance of the First Year
College Students of NCBA-Cubao

Research Paradigm

The paradigm of this study, illustrated in Figure 1, presents for its input the
extent to which the first year students of NCBA-Cubao use the visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic-tactile learning styles, the profile of the student-respondents according
to learning style, and their academic performance during the first semester of the
school year 2003 – 2004, with percentage of subjects passed and general average
as indices thereof.

The figure also indicates four intended outputs, which include awareness of
the extent to which the students’ learning styles are a variate to their academic
performance, ascertaining the necessity to include a learning style inventory in the
students’ psychological assessment by the guidance counselor, the academic staff
gaining a better understanding of each student’s individuality as a learner, and
schemes to make teaching strategies more eclectic and compatible to the students’
varied styles of learning.

In order to realize the above outputs, the researcher determined the impact
of learning styles on academic performance through a test of significance of
difference.

The paradigm of this study is based on the premise that a student’s

performance in class is dependent on factors both internal and external to the
learner. Internal factors include his unique ways of performing his tasks and
finding solutions to problems.

In the Input-Process-Output (I-P-O) format of the research paradigm, the

input contains the profile questions in the Statement of the Problem, which actually
presents the independent and dependent variables. The process, which is related to
or based on the latter questions in the problem statement, presents how the study
 12

will treat the variables or inputs. Treatment may involved determining significance
of relationship, association, or difference.

Procedures in Presenting the Research Paradigm

1. Citing the conceptual model or paradigm

2. Identifying the independent variables
3. Mentioning the dependent variables and their indicators and categories
4. Pointing out the intervening variables that can explain variances in the
dependent and
independent variables
5. Showing the direction of the study

Selecting the Appropriate Statistical Tools

Common Statistical Measures Used

The following are some of the statistical tools used in certain masteral and
doctoral studies undertaken in MLQU.

COURSE AND MAJOR: Problem Question: Statistical

MA Psychology Number Measures
Used:
1 What is the profile of the
respondents in terms of the * Frequency
TITLE OF STUDY: following demographic Count
Relationship Between variables: * Percentage
Study Habits and 1.1 course; (Ranking may
Academic Performance 1.2 age; also be used in
of Working College 1.3 sex; some
Students in San 1.4 occupation; and variables)
Sebastian College 1.5 socio-economic
Recoletos, Manila 2 status?

Author: Jose R. Rocha What is the study habits

profile of the respondent * Weighted
working college students in Mean
terms of educational and with verbal
psychological factors: description
2.1 reading and note-taking * Simple
techniques; Arithmetic
2.2 habits of concentration; Mean for
2.3 distribution of time; composite
2.4 delay of avoidance; and weighted mean
2.5 general habit of work?
 13

COURSE AND MAJOR: Problem Statistical

MPA Number Question: Measures Used

TITLE OF STUDY: 2 How do the officials and *Weighted

Strategic Management employees assess the Mean
Process and Functions of effectiveness of the with verbal
Selected Local implementation of the description
Government Units in following strategic * Ranking
Metro Manila Leading to management functions of (Items were
Their Organizational their local government units? ranked based
Effectiveness on
weighted
Author: Nelson C. mean)
Talabucon * Simple
arithmetic
for composite
weighted
mean
COURSE AND MAJOR: Problem Statistical
Ed. D. Number Question: Measures
Educational Management Used:
and Planning 4 Is there a significant
relationship between the Pearson
TITLE OF STUDY: types of intelligences the Product
Correlation Between the third year high school Moment
Multiple Intelligences students manifested in their Correlation or
and Academic academic achievements in Pearson r for
Performance of the the five learning areas? the coefficient
Selected Third Year of correlation
Students from Selected (The intelligences in this
Public High Schools from study are Howard Gardner’s t-test for the
the Division of Batangas 7 domains of intelligence; significance of
and Lipa City: Basis for the five learning areas are: relationship
Multiple Intelligences English, Science, Filipino,
Enhancement Program Mathematics, and
(Mean and
Makabayan)
standard
Author: Edilberto O. deviation were
Mercado also applied)
COURSE AND MAJOR: Problem Statistical
Ph. D. Number Question: Measures
Business Management Used:
 14

TITLE OF STUDY: 3 How do the assessments of

Financial Management
and Monitoring of
Projects Funded by the
Department of Energy
and National Power
Corporation: An 5 DOE, and NPC personnel)
Assessment
Author: Teodora C.
Dames
the three groups of F test or One
respondents compare? Way ANOVA
(the three groups of
respondents are the LGU,
t– test for
How significant are the independent
differences in the samples
assessments of the three
groups of respondents on
the extent of coordination
between DOE and NPC in the
implementation of the
programs and projects?

(Groups compared: LGU and

DOE; LGU and NPC; and
DOE and NPC)
COURSE AND MAJOR: Problem Statistical
DPA Number Questions: Measures
TITLE OF STUDY: Used:
Exemptions from the 3 How do the assessments of
Capital Gains Tax on the the three groups of One Way
Sale, Exchange and respondents of the ANOVA
Disposition of the effectiveness of the
Principal Residences of aforecited provisions
Natural Persons and Its 5 compare?
Effects on Tax
Collections How significant is the Chi-square Test
difference between the
Author: Fely C. Simon degree of agreement of the
three groups of respondents
with the aforementioned
provisions as correlated to
the assessments of the
Revenue Officers and Tax
Practitioners?

Some of the commonly used statistical measures with their classification

are:

Classification: Tests of Relationship or Association

 15

These measures are used to indicate the degree to which two or more sets of
scores or observations are related or covary.

1. Pearson-Product Moment Correlation (rxy). It is the most commonly used

measure of relationship when data are metric. It is calculated to show the
linear relationship between two variables. As obtained rxy does not reveal
significant association but the degree or magnitude of correlation between
two factors, t test for testing rxy has to be used to ascertain whether its is
statistically significant or not (Garcia, 2003).

For tests of significance of relationships either Spearman rho or Pearson r is

used. Spearman rho is used if the data are expressed as ranks and Pearson r is
used if data are expressed as scores (Certeza, 1998).

2. Chi-square (X2). It is used as an inferential statistics for nominal or

categorical data. This is the most versatile among the tests of statistical
significance, as it can be used both as a test of relationship and difference.
When employed as a test of relationship, it is called a test of independence.
When used as a test of difference, it is considered a test of homogeneity.

Other common measures of relationship are:

3. Coefficient of Concordance W. It is usually applied when the researcher

wants to determine whether agreement exists among the rankings of three
or more groups of respondents on a particular variable under study. Just like
Pearson r and Spearman rho, computed W only measures the magnitude of
agreement or concordance in rankings, not its significance. To test the
significance of W, the researcher has to use the chi-square test for W.

4. Cramer’s V Statistics. This is used in assessing the strength of association

between two variables which were found to be significantly related through
the chi-square test of independence. It is interpreted in the say way as r xy,
rho, and W.

Classification: Tests of Difference

These are used when comparisons are to be made between two or more
groups of respondents in terms of a variable being analyzed. Some of the most
commonly used statistical tests for determining significance of differences are:

1. t Test for Independent Samples. It is a parametric test that is used in

determining whether the mean value of a variable in one group of subjects is
different from the mean value on the same variable with a different group of
subjects. Cases are classified into two groups and a test of mean differences
is performed for specified variables.
 16

2. t Test for Correlated Samples (or Paired Samples). This test is used when
two groups that have been matched are being compared as in a pretest-
posttest design to see if any observed mean gain is significant.

3. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). It is used when the researcher wants to find

out if there are significant differences between the means of two or more
groups on a variable under study. It can be one-way, two-way or repeated
measure ANOVA, depending on the number of categories to be used as basis
for comparison.

4. Friedman Analysis of Variance (F). It is the non-parametric equivalent of the

two way ANOVA. In this test, two or more groups are being compared on a
particular variable, based on a classificatory characteristic or factor. Obtained
Fr is interpreted based on chi-square values.

5. Kruskall – Wallis H Test. This looks for the significance of differences among
three or more groups on a variable under study. It is the non-parametric
analog of one-way analysis of variance. Its purpose is to determine whether
samples from the groups involved in a study have been drawn from the same
population. Computed H in this test is interpreted just like X2.

Considerations in the Choice of a Statistical Test (Sevilla et al., 1992)

1. The choice of a statistical test is dictated by the question for which the
research is designed.

2. The level, distribution, and dispersion of data also suggest the type of
statistical test to be
used.

3. The extent of the researcher’s knowledge of statistics

4. Availability of resources in connection with the computation and

interpretation of data.

Level of Significance and Hypothesis Testing

When a hypothesis is being tested, the possibility of committing error in

rejecting or accepting it is considered. Error committed when the null hypothesis is
rejected when in fact it is true is called Type I error. The probability of making this
kind of error in a test is also called significance level of a test. A significance level
of 0.05 or 0.01 is usually used for tests involving statistical decision. A 0.05 level of
significance means that the researcher is willing to commit an error of 5%, and that
he is 95% confident that he has made the right decision in rejecting the null
hypothesis. As the level of significance chosen also implies the researcher’s
confidence level, a 0.01 significance level means that the researcher is 99%
confident that he has made the right decision, and that he could be wrong with a
probability of only 1%.
 17

The level of significance is needed to test the hypothesis. Through it and the
degrees of freedom, the tabular value is derived. The degrees of freedom are the
number of data points that are free to move or that can be moved, that is, the
number of elements in the data set minus the number of restrictions (Aczel, 1995).
Each statistical measure that tests a hypothesis has its own computation of its
degrees of freedom. The area of the curve right of the tabular value is called the tail
or the critical region. Thus, the tabular value is also called critical value as this
determines the acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis. The critical region is
also called rejection region as when the computed value lies there indicating that it
is greater than the tabular value, the null hypothesis is rejected. The area left of
the critical value, which is the greater area of the curve, is called the acceptance
region.

THE RATIONALE AND TECHNIQUES OF SAMPLING

Much as the researcher would like to study the entire population to ensure
conclusive results in his investigative work, certain constraints like hugeness of the
population and impossibility to obtain data from it keep him from doing so. In cases
like this, he resorts to sampling.

In sampling only a part of the population is examined. A sample of the

population or universe is taken as representative. A generalization formulated by
the researcher from the sample is applied to the population, or inferences are made
from the sample to the population.

Techniques of Sampling

Pure Random Sampling. In this type of sampling, each member of the

population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. This is the reason
why it is also termed as unrestricted random sampling. Also called the lottery or
raffle type of sampling, this may be used if the population members are not
classified (Calderon and Gonzales, 1993).

Systematic Sampling. In this technique, every nth name in a list may be

selected to be included in the sample. It is best to use this when the respondents or
subjects in the study are arranged in some systematic or logical manner such as
alphabetical arrangement, residential or house arrays, geographical placement from
north to south, etc.

If, for example, the sample size is 25% of the population, every 4 th name in
the list or array is selected. Four is derived from 100% divided by 25%. There must
be a random start in the selection.

Stratified Random Sampling. Here, samples from the different strata of

the study population are selected randomly. This is therefore used when the
population has class stratifications or groupings either horizontally or vertically.
 18

Cluster Sampling or Multistage Cluster Sampling. This is used when the

population is so big or the geographical area of the study is so large. The area or
population is first divided into clusters or blocks. Then within the final cluster, any
of the different methods of sample selection may be applied.

Purposive Sampling. This is determining who should be involved in the

study through some criteria, requirements or qualifications. If the qualified
respondents or subjects are still too many even after the latter had been set, the
final selection may be done either by pure random sampling, systematic random
sampling, or stratified random sampling.

Steps in Computing the Size of the Sample (Calderon and Gonzales,

1993)

1. Determine the size of the study population. This is easily determined from
the scope and delimitation of the study.

2. Decide on the margin of error. As much as possible the margin of error

should not be higher than 5%. Probably, 3% is an ideal one.

3. Use the formula n = . N .

2
1 + Ne

Where:

n = the size of the sample

N = the size of the population
e = the margin of error

4. If the sampling is multistage or if the population is stratified, compute the

sample proportion (percent) by dividing the result in step 3 by the population.

5. Multiply the number of sampling units in each final sampling stratum by

the rate (percent) to find the sample from each final sampling stratum.

6. Add the sample from all the final sampling strata.

Example:

Student population in a university: 9000

Computed sample size based on 3% margin of error: 989 students (10.99%

of the population)

Strata: Colleges
 19

Population Per College Population

College College X
.1099
Accountancy 2050 225
Business
Administration 1825 201
Arts and Sciences 1275 140
Engineering 1350 148
Medical Arts 2500 275
N = 9000 989

REFERENCES:

Books

Aczel, Amir D. Statistics Concepts and Applications. Chicago: Richard Irwin, Inc.,
1995.

Calderon, Jose F. and Expectacion C. Gonzales. Methods of Research and Thesis

Writing. Metro-Manila: National Book Store, Inc., 1993.

Catane, Juliet A. Conducting Research: A Practical Application. Quezon City: JMC

Press,
Inc., 2000.

Garcia, Carlito D. Fundamentals of Research and Research Designing. Quezon City:

Quezon City: Katha Publishing Co., Inc., 2003.

Sevilla, Consuelo et al. Research Methods. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc., 1992.

Journals

Briana, Felipe P. “ Ten Commandments for the Researcher.” MLQU Graduate

Journal,
Vol. XXXII, Manila: MLQU School of Graduate Studies, First and Second
Semesters and Summer SY 2002 – 2003.

Briana, Felipe P. “Leaving the Publish or Perish Concern.” The NCBA Research
Journal,
Vol. 2, No. 1, Quezon City: The National College of Business and Arts, July –
December 2004.

Briana, Felipe P. “The Influence of Learning Styles on the Academic Performance of

the
First Year College Students of NCBA-Cubao, SY 2003 – 2004.” The NCBA
 20

Research Journal, Vol. 2, No. 1, Quezon City: The National College of

Business
and Arts, July – December 2004.

Unpublished Materials

Briana, Felipe P. “The Influence of Adjustment Status and Professional Qualification

Variates on the Work Related Stress Among NCBA Faculty.” Unpublished
Master’s Thesis, MLQU, 1999.

Dames, Teodora C. “Financial Management and Monitoring of Projects Funded by

the Department of Energy and National Power Corporation: An Assessment.”
Unpublished Dissertation, MLQU, 2002.

Mercado, Edilberto O. “Correlation Btween the Multiple Intelligences and Academic

Performance of the Selected third year Students from Selected Public High
School from the Division of Batangas and Lipa City: Basis for Multiple
Intelligences Enhancement Program.” Unpublished Dissertation, MLQU, 2003.

Rocha, Jose R. “Relationship Between Study Habits and Academic Performance of

Working College Students in San Sebastian College Recoletos, Manila.”
Unpublished Master’s Thesis, MLQU, 2003.

Simon, Fely C. “Examption from the Capital Gains Tax on the Sale, Exchange and
Disposition of the Principal Residences of the Natural Persons and Its Effects
On Tax Collections.” Unpublished Dissertation, MLQU, 2001.

Talabucon, Nelson C. “Strategic Management Process and functions of Selected

Local
Government Units in Metro Manila Leading to Their Organizational
Effectiveness.”
Unpublished Master’s Thesis, MLQU, 2002.

Certeza, Lorenza. “The Text of the Thesis.” Lecture to the Seminar in Thesis Writing
class, MLQU, First Semester, SY 1998 – 1999.
21