ASIAN DEVELOPMENT FOUNDATION COLLEGE

Graduate School
Tacloban City

COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION
in
EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS

1. Discuss the meaning/concepts and nature of statistics.

1.1 The Nature of Statistics
Statistics is both science and art. Statistical methods are
systematic and have a general application which makes it a science.
Further, the successful application of these methods requires skills and
experience of using the statistical tools.

1.2 Meaning/Concepts of Statistics

If we take the various statistical methods in consideration, we
can define statistics as a science in which we study: Numerous
methods of collecting, editing, classifying, tabulating and presenting
facts using graphs and diagrams. Several ways of condensing data
regarding various social, political, and economic. Statistics is both
science and art. Statistical methods are systematic and have a general
application which makes it a science. Further, the successful
application of these methods requires skills and experience of using
the statistical tools.

2. Explain the different kinds of variables according to:

2.1 Functional Relationship

Ans.
Functional relation refers to the effect of an independent
variable on a dependent variable. An independent variable is
something that is manipulated to effect a change in another variable (a
dependent variable). A deterministic (or functional) relationship is an
exact relationship between the predictor and the response. Take, for
instance, the conversion relationship between temperature in degrees
Celsius and temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.

2.2 Continuity of Values

Ans.
 A variable is said to be continuous if it can assume an infinite
number of real values within a given interval. A continuous variable is a
specific kind a quantitative variable used in statistics to describe data
that is measurable in some way. If your data deals with measuring a
height, weight, or time, then you have a continuous variable.

2.3 Scales of Measurement

Ans.
Variables are measurement using an instrument, device, or
computer. The scale of the variable measured drastically affects the
type of analytical techniques that can be used on the data, and what
conclusions can be drawn from the data. There are four scales of
measurement, nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

3. Differentiate parametric test and non-parametric test as tools in statistics.

Ans.
Parametric tests assume a normal distribution of values, or a
“bell-shaped curve.” For example, height is roughly a normal
distribution in that if you were to graph height from a group of people,
one would see a typical bell-shaped curve. This distribution is also
called a Gaussian distribution. Parametric tests are in general more
powerful (require a smaller sample size) than nonparametric tests.
While, Nonparametric tests are used in cases where parametric tests
are not appropriate. Most nonparametric tests use some way of
ranking the measurements and testing for weirdness of the
distribution. Typically, a parametric test is preferred because it has
better ability to distinguish between the two arms. In other words, it is
better at highlighting the weirdness of the distribution. Nonparametric
tests are about 95% as powerful as parametric tests.

4. Discuss the types of data presentation and cite examples to substantiate

your answer.
Ans.
The types of data presentation are the :
1. Tabular Presentation
It is a table that helps to represent even a large amount of data
in an engaging, easy to read, and coordinated manner. The data is
arranged in rows and columns. This is one of the most popularly used
forms of presentation of data as data tables are simple to prepare and
read.
2. Graphic Presentation-is a visual form of presenting statistical data
example of this are:
 2.1 Pie Chart or Circle Graph
A pie chart, sometimes called a circle chart, is a way of
summarizing a set of nominal data or displaying the different
values of a given variable (e.g. percentage distribution). This type
of chart is a circle divided into a series of segments. Each segment
represents a particular category.

2.2 Histogram or Bar Graph

A histogram is a type of bar graph used to display statistical
or quantitative data. It allows you to show the frequency or
distribution of continuous data and compare non-discrete values.
Histograms include data ranges grouped into data bins or data
intervals on the x-axis with values on the y-axis.
2.3 Frequency Polygon or Line Graph
A frequency polygon is a line graph of class frequency
plotted against class midpoint. It can be obtained by joining the
midpoints of the tops of the rectangles in the histogram
3. Textual Presentation
It is a vague and raw format of the data. The data is
mentioned in the text form, which is usually written in a
paragraph. The textual presentation of data is used when the
data is not large and can be easily comprehended by the reader
just when he reads the paragraph.

5. Compare and contrast the four scales of measurement.

Ans.
Nominal Scale, also called the categorical variable scale, is defined as
a scale used for labeling variables into distinct classifications and doesn’t
involve a quantitative value or order. This scale is the simplest of the four
variable measurement scales. Calculations done on these variables will be
futile as there is no numerical value of the options.

Ordinal Scale is defined as a variable measurement scale used to simply

depict the order of variables and not the difference between each of the
variables. These scales are generally used to depict non-mathematical ideas
such as frequency, satisfaction, happiness, a degree of pain, etc. It is quite
straightforward to remember the implementation of this scale as ‘Ordinal’
sounds similar to ‘Order’, which is exactly the purpose of this scale.

Interval Scale is defined as a numerical scale where the order of the

variables is known as well as the difference between these variables.
Variables that have familiar, constant, and computable differences are
 classified using the Interval scale. It is easy to remember the primary role of
this scale too, ‘Interval’ indicates ‘distance between two entities’, which is
what Interval scale helps in achieving.

Ratio Scale is defined as a variable measurement scale that not only

produces the order of variables but also makes the difference between
variables known along with information on the value of true zero. It is
calculated by assuming that the variables have an option for zero, the
difference between the two variables is the same and there is a specific order
between the options.

6. Give at least five (5) sampling techniques and give examples to

concretize your answer.
Ans.
6.1 Random Sampling
Random sampling is a part of the sampling technique in which each
sample has an equal probability of being chosen. A sample chosen
randomly is meant to be an unbiased representation of the total
population. If for some reasons, the sample does not represent the
population, the variation is called a sampling error.
Using the lottery method is one of the oldest ways and is a
mechanical example of random sampling. In this method, the researcher
gives each member of the population a number. Researchers draw
numbers from the box randomly to choose samples.

6.2 Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling is a probability sampling method where
researchers select members of the population at a regular interval – for
example, by selecting every 15th person on a list of the population. If the
population is in a random order, this can imitate the benefits of simple
random sampling.
6.3 Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a method of probability sampling that is
often used to study large populations, particularly those that are
widely geographically dispersed. Researchers usually use pre-existing
units such as schools or cities as their clusters. In cluster sampling,
researchers divide a population into smaller groups known as clusters.
They then randomly select among these clusters to form a sample.

6.4 Non-Random Sampling

6.4.1 Purposive Sampling
 Purposive sampling refers to a group of non-probability sampling techniques
in which units are selected because they have characteristics that you need in
your sample. In other words, units are selected “on purpose” in purposive
sampling
6.4.2 Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is a sampling methodology wherein data
is collected from a homogeneous group. It involves a two-step
process where two variables can be used to filter information
from the population. It can easily be administered and helps in
quick comparison.

6.4.3 Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling is a type of non-probability
sampling, which doesn’t include random selection of
participants. The opposite is probability sampling, where
participants are randomly selected, and each has an equal
chance of being chosen.

6.5 Lottery Sampling

Using the lottery method is one of the oldest ways and is a
mechanical example of random sampling. In this method, the researcher
gives each member of the population a number. Researchers draw
numbers from the box randomly to choose samples.

7 Discuss the following basic measurements in statistics and give the formula
for each:
Ans.

8 Mention/Describe at least five (5) statistical tests/tools commonly used in

research and give their uses. You may include their formulas.
Ans.
1. The T-Test for Independent Sample Means
 is used to determine if an observed difference between the average of
two of independent groups is statistically significant.
Standard deviation for the independent sample t-test

Independent sample t-test

Degree of freedom for independent sample t-test

Where
V= degree of freedom
N1+N2= number of observations in both samples of the independent sample t-test.

2. The Chi-Square Test

 is statistical test for categorical data. It is used to determine whether your

data are significantly different from what you expected. There are two
types of Pearson’s chi-square tests:

Where:

 Χ2 is the chi-square test statistic

 Σ is the summation operator (it means “take the sum of”)
 O is the observed frequency
 E is the expected frequency

3. The One-Sample Z-test

 is used to determine if an obtained sample mean or average of scores or
values is but a random sample from a population with a given or
hypothesized or expected population mean.
 is used when we want to know whether the difference between the mean
of a sample mean and the mean of a population is large enough to be
statistically significant.

Formula: z = ¯ ¯ ¯x - µ σ √ n x¯ - µ σ n.

Where;

¯ ¯ ¯x x¯ is the sample mean

µµ is the population mean,

σσ is the population standard devation and

n is the sample size
4. The One-Way Analysis of Variance
 is used in order to determine if there are difference among means of
three or more groups.
Formula:
 F = MS between
MS within
Where:
F = Coefficient of ANNOVA
MSB = Mean sum of squares between groups
MSW = Mean sum of squares within groups

5. The Chi-Square Test Association

 is used to determine whether or not two variables are associated with
each other.
 is an overall test for detecting relationships between two categorical
variables. If the test is significant, it is important to look at the data to
learn the nature of the relationship. If the observed chi-square test static
is greater than the critical value, the null hypothesis can be rejected.

Formula:
df = (r-1)(c-1)
where;
r = is the number of rows
c = number of columns