1.

Jean Piaget - Theory of

Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget - Theory of Cognitive
Development

• Jean Piaget (1896-1980) a Swiss psychologist, who studied the

intellectual and logical abilities of children, theorized that
cognitive development proceeds in four stages that follow the
same sequential order.

• His Cognitive Development Theory is hugely influential in the

fields of education and psychology.

• He proposed that the thinking process develops through each of

the stages, until a child can think logically.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
It focuses on children, from birth through adolescence, and characterizes
different stages of development, including:
 language
 morals
 memory
 reasoning

Piaget made several assumptions about children while developing his theory:
• Children build their own knowledge based on their experiences.
• Children learn things on their own without influence from adults or older
children.
• Children are motivated to learn by nature. They don’t need rewards as
motivation.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
There are four stages in all:
• sensorimotor stage
• preoperational stage
• concrete operational stage
• formal operational stage
 Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development
Stage Age Characteristics Goal

Motor activity without use of symbols. All

Birth to 18–24 months
Sensorimotor things learned are based on experiences, Object permanence
old
or trial and error.

Development of language, memory, and

Preoperational 2 to 7 years old imagination. Intelligence is both Symbolic thought
egocentric and intuitive.

More logical and methodical manipulation

Concrete operational 7 to 11 years old of symbols. Less egocentric, and more Operational thought
aware of the outside world and events.

Use of symbols to relate to abstract

Adolescence to concepts. Able to make hypotheses and
Formal operational Abstract concepts
adulthood grasp abstract concepts and
relationships.
 1. Sensorimotor

•The sensorimotor stage covers children ages birth to 18–24

months old. Characteristics include motor activity without use of
symbols. All things learned are based on experiences, or trial and
error.

•The main goal at this stage is establishing an understanding of

object permanence — in other words, knowing that an object still
exists even if you can’t see it or it’s hidden.
2. Preoperational

•The preoperational stage can be seen in children ages 2

through 7. Memory and imagination are developing.
Children at this age are egocentric, which means they
have difficulty thinking outside of their own viewpoints.

•The main achievement of this stage is being able to

attach meaning to objects with language. It’s thinking
about things symbolically. Symbolic thought is a type of
thinking where a word or object is used to represent
something other than itself.
3. Concrete operational

•Children are much less egocentric in the

concrete operational stage. It falls between the
ages of 7 to 11 years old and is marked by
more logical and methodical manipulation of
symbols.

•The main goal at this stage is for a child to

start working things out inside their head. This
is called operational thought, and it allows kids
to solve problems without physically
encountering things in the real world.
 4. Formal operational

•Children 11 years old and older fall into Piaget’s

formal operational stage. A milestone of this period
is using symbols to understand abstract concepts.
Not only that, but older kids and adults can also
think about multiple variables and come up with
hypotheses based on previous knowledge.

•Piaget believed that people of all ages developed

intellectually. But he also believed that once a
person reaches the formal operational stage, it’s
more about building upon knowledge, not changing
how it’s acquired or understood.
Piaget’s Philosophy - Education Program.

Examples include:
 Providing chances for trial and error. Focus on the process of learning
versus the end result.
 Providing children with visual aids and other props, like models, to
illustrate different ideas and concepts.
 Using real-life examples to paint complex ideas, like word problems in
math.
 Providing chances to classify or group information. Outlines and
hierarchies are good examples and allow children to build new ideas
from previous knowledge.
 Offering problems that necessitate analytical or logical thinking. Brain
teasers can be used as a tool in this instance.
1. Sensorimotor

• Use real objects in play activities.

• Connect play to the five senses.

• Implement routines for the youngest children. They are predictable

and may be highly useful with developing communication.
 2. Preoperational

 Children learn best by doing. Allow them to actively interact with a

variety of things in their environments, including books, people,
games, and objects.

 Ask questions while children are engaged in daily routines and allow
them to come up with their own ideas.

 Point out new things and encourage children to question you about
those things.
3. Concrete operational

 Create timelines, three dimensional models, science

experiments, and other ways to manipulate abstract concepts.

 Use brain teasers and riddles to foster analytical thinking.

 Focus on open-ended questioning.

4. Formal operational

 Offer step-by-step explanations of concepts and utilize charts

and other visual aids.

 Explore hypothetical situations. You may relate them to current

events or social issues.

 Broaden concepts whenever possible. For example, if talking

about the Civil War, discuss other issues that have divided the
country since that time.
 Piaget vs. Vygotsky

• Lev Vygotsky developed his theory on child development at the

same time Piaget was developing his own theory.
• Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children develop through
stages.
• Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky believed that learning and development
were tied to social interactions and culture.
• Piaget believed that children learn through doing, Vygotsky
believed that they learn through being shown.
Piaget vs. Montessori

• Maria Montessori shared some ideas with Piaget, including how

children move through stages.

• Their theories are similar until children reach age 3.

• In school, Montessori classrooms are more child-directed.

• Piaget classrooms are more teacher-directed with a focus on

routine, though there is flexibility and opportunity for child-
directed activities.
Reading Material:
https://educationaltechnology.net/jean-piaget-and-his-theory-stages-
of-cognitive-development
/
https://www.webmd.com/children/piaget-stages-of-development

Video:
https://
www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/processing-the-environment/
cognition/v/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development
2. Vygotsky’s Theory of Sociocultural Development
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who argued

that culture has a major impact on a child’s cognitive development.

The main assertion of the Vygotsky theory is that cognitive development

in early childhood is advanced through social interaction with other
people, particularly those who are more skilled.

Vygotsky believed that social learning comes before cognitive

development in children, and that children construct knowledge actively.
Vygotsky’s Concept of Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky is most recognized for his concept of Zone of

Proximal Development (ZPD) pertaining to the cognitive
development in children.

• The zone of proximal development (ZPD), or zone of

potential development, refers to the range of abilities an
individual can perform with the guidance of an expert, but
cannot yet perform on their own.

• A good teacher identifies a child’s ZPD and helps the

child stretch beyond it. Then the adult (teacher)
gradually withdraws support until the child can then
perform the task unaided.
 Some examples of ZPD applications in the classroom:

• A teacher in an experimental psychology course might initially provide

scaffolding by coaching them through their experiments. Later, the teacher
slowly removes the scaffolding by only providing brief descriptions of how to
proceed. Finally, students would be expected to carry out their experiments
independently.

• A teacher may provide traceable worksheets to students learning how to write

the alphabet. The teacher may also use a whiteboard to model the steps it
takes to write letters. If some students get stuck, the teacher may have them
practice on the whiteboard together until the skill is mastered.

• For children learning another language, a teacher may write a sentence on the
board, read it aloud, then encourage the students to take turns reading it aloud
themselves. The teacher may then split the children into groups to practice
reading together before assigning reading homework to do independently.
Scaffolding Theory

When a child is in their ZPD, an expert will provide them with

appropriate assistance to help them accomplish a new task or skill.
Activities, instructions, tools, and resources that are used to aid in this
learning process are known as scaffolding.
 Examples of scaffolding that educators may use include:

• Asking a student what they think should be done next, what their
thought process was, or if there are other ways the problem can be solved,

• Modeling how to solve a similar problem or complete a similar task.

• Putting students in small groups and having them discuss a new concept
before engaging in it.

• Using visual aids to help students conceptualize a task prior to engaging in it.

• Asking students to use prior knowledge to better understand more complex

topics.
• While scaffolding is most often associated with the zone of proximal
development, it is not a concept that was initially introduced by
Vygotsky. Instead, this term has been put forth by other researchers
who have expanded on his original theories.

• This term was introduced by Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976).

Reading Material and Videos

https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

Videos:
https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
https://
www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/individuals-and-society/self-ide
ntity/v/vygotsky-sociocultural-development
 3. Erik Erikson’s Theory of
Social Emotional Development
Erik Erikson’s Theory of Social
Emotional Development
Erikson maintained that personality develops in a
predetermined order through eight stages of
psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood.

During each stage, the person experiences a

psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or
negative outcome for personality development.

All individuals must overcome or resolve successfully in

order to adjust well to the environment.
Erikson’s psychosocial theory of
development considers the impact
of external factors, parents and
society on personality development
from childhood to adulthood.

According to Erikson’s theory, every

person must pass through a series
of eight interrelated stages over the
entire life cycle.
 1. Infancy: Birth-18 Months Old
Basic Trust vs. Mistrust – Hope
• During the first or second year of life, the
major emphasis is on the mother and father’s
nurturing ability and care for a child,
especially in terms of visual contact and
touch.

• The child will develop optimism, trust,

confidence, and security if properly cared for
and handled.

• If a child does not experience trust, he or she

may develop insecurity, worthlessness, and
general mistrust to the world.
2. Toddler / Early Childhood years: 18 months
to 3 years
Autonomy vs. Shame – Will
The second stage occurs between 18 months and 3 years. At this point, the child
has an opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as he or she learns new skills
and right from wrong.

The well-cared for child is sure of himself, carrying himself or herself with pride
rather than shame.

During this time of the “terrible twos”, defiance, temper tantrums, and stubbornness
can also appear.

Children tend to be vulnerable during this stage, sometimes feeling ashamed and
low self-esteem during an inability to learn certain skills.
 3. Preschooler: 3 To 5 Years

Initiative vs. Guilt – Purpose

• During this period, children experience a desire to copy the adults around them
and take initiative
• In creating play situations. They make up stories with toy phones and miniature
cars, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what
they believe it means to be an adult.
• Conversely, if this tendency is crushed, either through criticism
or control, children develop a sense of guilt. The child will often
overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the
parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too
much.

• It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions
as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s
questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects
of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings
of guilt for “being a nuisance”.
• Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others
and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course,
necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise
self-control or have a conscience.

• A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose, while
failure results in a sense of guilt.
 4. School age Child: 6 to 12 years
Industry vs. Inferiority – Competence
During this stage, children are capable of
learning, creating and accomplishing
numerous new skills and knowledge, thus
developing a sense of industry.

This is also a very social stage of

development and if children experience
unresolved feelings of inadequacy and
inferiority among their peers, they can have
serious problems in terms of competence and
self-esteem.
• As the world expands a bit, their most significant relationship is with
the school and neighbourhood. Parents are no longer the complete
authorities they once were, although they are still important.

• If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they

begin to feel industrious (competent) and feel confident in their
ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is
restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior,
doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her
potential.
5. Adolescent: 12 to 18 years
Identity vs. Role Confusion – Fidelity
• It occurs during adolescence, from about 12-
18 years. During this stage, adolescents
search for a sense of self and personal
identity, through an intense exploration of
personal values, beliefs, and goals.
• During adolescence, the transition from
childhood to adulthood is most important.
Children are becoming more independent,
and begin to look at the future in terms of
career, relationships, families, housing, etc.
The individual wants to belong to a society
and fit in.
• Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable
about their body for a while until they can adapt and “grow into”
the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of fidelity.
• Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on
the basis of accepting others, even when there may be
ideological differences.
• During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form
their own identity based upon the outcome of their
explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within
society ("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up") can
lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual
not being sure about themselves or their place in society.
• In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may
begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g., work, education or
political activities).
• Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the
form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of
unhappiness.
6. Young Adult: 18 to 35 years
Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation – Love
• This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of
approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers
on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.

• During this stage, they begin to share themselves more intimately with
others. They explore relationships leading toward longer-term
commitments with someone other than a family member.
• Successful completion of this stage can result in happy
relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care
within a relationship.
• Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can
lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.

• Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

7. Middle-aged Adult: 40 to 55 or 65 years
Generativity vs. Self-Absorption or Stagnation – Care
• This stage takes place during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 years).

• They give back to society through raising their children, being

productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and
organizations. Through generativity they develop a sense of being a
part of the bigger picture.
• Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment,
while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
• By failing to find a way to contribute, they become stagnant and
feel unproductive. These individuals may feel disconnected or
uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.
 8. Late Adult: 55 Or 65 To Death
Integrity vs. Despair – Wisdom
• Erikson believed that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage and
the last stage involves much reflection.

• As older adults, some can look back with a feeling of integrity — that is,
contentment and fulfilment, having led a meaningful life and valuable contribution
to society.

• Others may have a sense of despair during this stage, reflecting upon their
experiences and failures. They may fear death as they struggle to find a purpose
to their lives, wondering “What was the point of life? Was it worth it?”
How is Erik Erikson's theory used today?

Erikson's theory is useful for

teaching, parenting, self-
awareness, managing and
coaching, dealing with conflict,
and generally for
understanding self and others.
Reading Material
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/eri
ksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development/
4. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems
Theory of Child Development
 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory of
Child Development
• American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner,
formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to views
child development as a complex system of
relationships affected by multiple levels of the
surrounding environment, from immediate settings
of family and school to broad cultural values, laws,
and customs.

• Through his theory, Bronfenbrenner stressed the

importance of studying a child in the context of
his/her multiple environments, also known as
ecological systems in the attempt to understand
his/her individual development.
 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory of
Child Development
• A child finds himself simultaneously enmeshed in different ecosystems,
from the most intimate home ecological system moving outward to the
larger school system and the most expansive system which is society
and culture.
• Each of these systems inevitably interacts with and influences each
other and every aspect of the child’s life.
• The Ecological Systems Approach organizes contexts of development
into five levels of external influence which interlock.
• The levels are categorized from the most intimate level to the broadest,
with the most intimate being the microsystem.
 The Five Ecological Systems

• To study a child's development then, we must look not only at the child
and her immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger
environment as well.

• Bronfenbrenner divided the person's environment into five di fferent

systems: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the
macrosystem, and the chronosystemm.
 1. Microsystem
• This is the first level of Bronfenbrenner's theory, and are the things
that have direct contact with the child in their immediate
environment, such as parents, siblings, teachers and school peers.
• Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional, meaning the child
can be influenced by other people in their environment and is also
capable of changing the beliefs and actions of other people too.
1. Microsystem
• The reactions of the child to individuals in their microsystem can
influence how they treat them in return.

• The interactions within microsystems are often very personal and

are crucial for fostering and supporting the child’s development.

• If a child has a strong nurturing relationship with their parents, this

is said to have a positive effect on the child. Whereas, distant and
unaffectionate parents will have a negative effect on the child.
2. Mesosystem
This system encompasses the interactions between the child’s microsystems,
such as the interactions between the child’s parents and teachers, or between
school peers and siblings.

The mesosystem is where a person's individual microsystems do not function

independently, but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another.
For instance, if a child’s parents communicate with the child’s teachers, this
interaction may influence the child’s development. Essentially, a
mesosystem is a system of microsystems.

According to the ecological systems theory, if the child’s parents and

teachers get along and have a good relationship, this should have positive
effects on the child’s development, compared to negative effects on
development if the teachers and parents do not get along.
3. Exosystem
• It incorporates other formal and informal social structures, which do not themselves
contain the child, but indirectly influence them as they affect one of the
microsystems.
• Examples of exosystems include the neighborhood, parent’s workplaces, parent’s
friends and the mass media. These are environments in which the child is not
involved, and are external to their experience, but nonetheless affects them anyway.
4. Macrosystem
• This focuses on how cultural
elements affect a child's
development, such as
socioeconomic status, wealth,
poverty, and ethnicity.

• Thus, culture that individuals are

immersed within may influence their
beliefs and perceptions about
events that transpire in life.
• The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as is does
not refer to the specific environments of one developing child, but
the already established society and culture which the child is
developing in.

• This can also include the socioeconomic status, ethnicity,

geographic location and ideologies of the culture.

• For example, a child living in a third world country would experience

a different development than a child living in a wealthier country.
 5. Chronosystem
• This system consists of all of the
environmental changes that occur over the
lifetime which influence development,
including major life transitions, and historical
events.

• These can include normal life transitions such

as starting school but can also include non-
normative life transitions such as parents
getting a divorce or having to move to a new
house.
 Classroom Application

• The Ecological Systems Theory has been used to link psychological

and educational theory to early educational curriculums and practice.

• At the center of the theory is the developing child, and all that occurs
within and between the five ecological systems are done so to benefit
the child in the classroom.

• To strengthen the development between the ecological systems in

educational practice according to the theory, teachers and parents
should keep good communication with each other and work together
to benefit the child.
• Teachers should also be understanding of the situations their
student’s families may be experiencing, including social and
economic factors that are part of the various systems.

• According to the theory, if parents and teachers have a good

relationship, this should shape the child’s development in a
positive way.

• Likewise, the child must also be active in their learning,

engaged both academically and socially. They must work as a
team with their peers and get involved in meaningful learning
experiences to enable positive development (Evans, 2012).
Reading Material and Video
• https://explorable.com/ecological-systems-theory

• https://
study.com/academy/lesson/bronfenbrenners-ecological-systems-theo
ry-of-development-definition-examples.html