PHYSIC NOTES

Q.1. Describe band theory of solids in detail?

Ans.: Energy Bands in Solids: In the band theory of solids, there are
many energy bands but the following are the three most important
energy bands in solids:
Valence band:
The energy band that consists of valence electrons energy levels, is
known as the valence band. The valence band is present below the
conduction band and the electrons of this band are loosely bound to
the nucleus of the atom.
Conduction band:
The energy band that consists of free electrons energy levels, is known
as the conduction band. For electrons to be free, external energy must
be applied such that the valence electrons get pushed to the
conduction band and become free.
Forbidden band:
The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band is
known as the forbidden band which is known as the forbidden gap. The
electrical conductivity of a solid is determined by the forbidden gap and Consider a Sodium atom. It comprises 11 electrons.
also the classification of the materials as conductors, semiconductors, They fill up the energy level.
and insulator .
Q.2.: Explain the type 1 and type 2 super conduction in detail?
Ans.: Type – I Superconductors: Low critical temperature (typically in the range of 0K to 10K). Magnetic field cannot
penetrate inside the material. Exhibits single critical magnetic field. Easily lose the superconducting state by
low-intensity magnetic field. Therefore, type-I superconductors are also known as soft superconductors. The
transition from a superconducting state to a normal state due to the external magnetic field is sharp for type-I
superconductors. Type-I superconductors are generally pure metals. These are completely diamagnetic. These
are also called as Soft Superconductors. These are also called as Low-temperature Superconductors. No mixed
state exists in type-I Superconductors. Slight impurity does not affect the superconductivity of type-I
superconductors. Due to the low critical magnetic field, type-I superconductors have limited technical
applications. Exemples: Hg, Pb, Zn , etc.

Type – II Superconductors: High critical temperature (typically greater than 10K). Magnetic field can penetrate
inside the material. Exhibits two critical magnetic field. Does not easily lose the superconducting state by
external magnetic field. Therefore, type-II superconductors are also known as hard superconductors. The
transition from a superconducting state to a normal state due to the external magnetic field is gradually but
not shape for type-II superconductors. Type-II superconductors are generally alloys and complex oxides of
ceramics. These are not completely diamagnetic. These are also called as Hard Superconductors. These are
also called as High-temperature Superconductors. A mixed state exists in type-II Superconductors. Slight
impurity greatly affects the superconductivity of type-II superconductors. Due to the high critical magnetic
field, type-II superconductors have wider technical applications. Examples: NbTi , Nb3Sn, etc.
Q.3.:What is magnetism ?explain the various application of magnetism?
Q.4.:Describe hall effect theory ,hall coefficient application on detail?
Q.5.: Give the application of super conductor and also the state the examples of super
conductor?
Ans.: “A superconductor is defined as a substance that offers no resistance to the electric current
when it becomes colder than a critical temperature.”

Some of the popular examples of superconductors are aluminium, magnesium diboride, niobium,
copper oxide, yttrium barium and iron pnictides. These substances superconduct at temperatures
below the critical temperature.
The below graph shows the temperature dependence of the electrical resistivity of normal metal
and a superconductor.
Superconductor Applications
•Superconductors are used in particle accelerators, generators, transportation, computing, electric
motors, medical, power transmission, etc.
•Superconductors are primarily employed for creating powerful electromagnets in MRI scanners.
•These conductors are used to transmit power for long distances.
They are used in memory or storage elements. Superconductor Types
Superconductors come in two distinct types: type I and type II.