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Unit 4
Semiconductor Physics
Prof. G. V. Khandekar
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Publications
Sr. Volume
No. Title of Paper Title of Research Author & only one
Publisher Number &
Journal co-author
Year
Thermal stress analysis
J. of Exp. & 2
of cross-ply laminated S. K. Kulkarni
29 Applied STM
plates using refined 2011 Y.M. Ghugal
Machanies
shear deformation theory
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Sinhgadhttps://www.studymedia.in/fe/notes
Institute of Technology, Lonavala
Syllabus
Band theory in solids, free electron theory (qualitative),
electrical conductivity in conductor and semiconductor,
influence of external factors on conductivity
(temperature, light and impurity), Fermi energy, density
state (qualitative), concept of effective mass, electrons
and holes, Fermi-Dirac probability distribution function
(effect of temperature on Fermi level with graph),
Position of Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor (with
derivation) and extrinsic semiconductors, Dependence of
Fermi level on temperature and doping concentration
(qualitative), diffusion and drift current (qualitative), band
structure of PN junction diode under i) zero bias, ii)
forward bias, iii) reverse bias, Working of transistor (NPN
only) on the basis of Band diagram, Hall effect (with
derivation), photovoltaic effect working of solar cell on
the basis of band diagram and its applications.
Unit Objectives: On completion of this unit
students will be able to
• Understand free electron theory and band theory in solids

• Know factors affecting electrical conductivity
• Understand phenomena involved in semiconductors
• Elaborate position of Fermi level in intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors
• Understand band diagram of PN junction diode under different
biasing conditions
• Familiarize with the working of NPN on the basis of band diagram
• Understand Hall effect
• Get acquainted with the working of solar cell

Valence Band, Conduction Band & Forbidden
Band
All types of solids consists three types of bands,
1. Valence Band:
It is an energy band which contains the outermost valence electrons.
2. Conduction Band:
It is an allowed energy band next to the valence band which contains
free electrons that take part in conduction.
3. Forbidden Band:
It is an energy band between the valence and conduction band. The
energies in this band are forbidden i.e. not allowed for the electron.
To raise the electron from valence band to conduction band, energy
equivalent to the forbidden energy gap has to be supplied to the
electron.

Classification of Solids on the basis of band
theory
1. Conductors:
In conductors, the valence band & conduction band overlap. There is no
forbidden band. The electrons can made to move and constitute a
current by applying a small potential difference.
The resistance of conductor is very low & it increases with temperature.
Hence the conductors are said to be positive temperature coefficient of
resistance.
The energy band structure of conductor is shown in figure.
Metals like copper, gold, silver, aluminium are good conductors.

(Energy)
Conduction Band {
} Valence Band
Energy bands structure in conductors.

2. Insulators:
Insulators have completely filled valence band & an empty conduction
band which are separated by a large forbidden gap.
The band gap energy is about 5 eV . Hence large amount of energy is
required to transfer electrons from valence band to conduction band.
Insulators have low conductivity & high resistance. Diamond, glass are
insulators.
The band structure of insulator is shown in figure.
(Energy)
Conduction Band {
Band Gap Eg
}Valence Band
Semiconductors:
In semiconductors valence band is completely filled and the conduction
band is empty at absolute zero temperature.
The valence band and conduction band are separated by a small
forbidden band of the order 2 eV.
Hence compared to insulator small energy is required to transfer the
electrons from valence band to conduction band.
In semiconductors conductivity is better than the insulators but not as
good as the conductors. Examples Si, Ge.
(Energy)
Conduction Band {
Band Gap Eg 2 eV
}Valence Band
As temperature increases, the electron from valence band will move to
conduction band leaving a vacancy in valence band which is known as
hole.
Hence conductivity increases with increase in temperature, therefore
semiconductors are said to have negative temperature coefficient.

Types of Semiconductors
The semiconductors are classified into two types
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor (Pure Semiconductor)
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor (Impure semiconductor)
I) Intrinsic Semiconductor (Pure Semiconductor):
Silicon covalent bonding structure

II) Extrinsic Semiconductors:
Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types.
1. n-type semiconductor
2. p- type semiconductor
n-Type Semiconductor:
n-type semiconductors are obtained by adding group Vth elements
(pentavalents) like phosphorus, arsenic, antimony to the pure
semiconductors.
Unpaired electron
When a pentavalent atom like
phosphorus replaces a silicon atom in
the silicon crystal, four electrons
participates in the formation of
covalent bonds & one electron is left
unpaired which is free electron.

p-type semiconductors:
p-type semiconductors are obtained by adding group-III elements like
indium and gallium to pure semiconductors. These impurities are
known as acceptors.
When a trivalent atom like gallium replaces a silicon atom in a silicon
crystal, they produces allowable energy levels just above the valence
band as shown in figure.
Hence the majority charge carriers in hole

p-type semiconductors are holes

Free Electron Models
Classical Model Quantum Mechanical Model
Metal is an array of positive ions with Electrons are in a potential well with
electrons that are free to roam through infinite barriers: They do not leave
the ionic array metal, but free to roam inside
Electrons are treated as an ideal Electron energy levels are discrete

neutral gas, and their total energy (quantized) and well defined, so
depends on the temperature and average energy of electron is not
applied field equal to (3/2) kBT
In the absence of an electrical field, Electrons occupy energy levels

electrons move with randomly according to Pauli’s exclusion
distributed thermal velocities principle
When an electric field is applied, Electrons acquire additional energy

electrons acquire a net drift velocity when electric field is applied
in the direction opposite to the field

The Classical Free Electron Theory (Drude-Lorentz Theory)
• The metal atoms have a core, which consist of a nucleus surrounded by the
inner electrons and the valence electrons. The valence electrons are free to
move throughout the volume of the sample.
• The electrostatic forces of attraction between the free electrons and the ion
cores are negligible.
• The electrons cannot escape from the metal due to potential barrier at the
surface. Inside the metal potential is constant.
• The free electrons are equivalents to gas molecules and hence the kinetic theory
of gases is applicable to them. In absence of electric field, they have random
thermal motion. Their energies are distributed according to the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.

Success of classical free electron theory
• It is used to verify ohm’s law.
• It is used to explain the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.
• It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.

• Ductility and malleability of metals can be explained by this model.

Drawbacks of classical free electron theory
• From the classical free electron theory the value of specific heat of
metals is given by 4.5R, where ‘R’ is called the universal gas
constant. But the experimental value of specific heat is nearly equal
to 3R.
• With help of this model we can’t explain the electrical conductivity

of semiconductors and insulators.
• The theoretical value of paramagnetic susceptibility is greater than
the experimental value.
• Ferromagnetism cannot be explained by this theory.

• At low temperature, the electrical conductivity and the thermal
conductivity vary in different ways. Therefore K/σT is not a
constant. But in classical free electron theory, it is a constant in all
temperature.
• The photoelectric effect, Compton effect and the black body
radiation cannot be explained by the classical free electron theory.

The salient features of quantum free electron theory
• Sommerfeld proposed this theory in 1928 retaining the concept of free
electrons moving in a uniform potential within the metal as in the
classical theory, but treated the electrons as obeying the laws of quantum
mechanics.
• Based on the DeBroglie wave concept, he assumed that a moving
electron behaves as if it were a system of waves. (called matter
waves-waves associated with a moving particle).
• According to quantum mechanics, the energy of an electron in a metal is

quantized. The electrons are filled in a given energy level according to
Pauli’s exclusion principle. (i.e. No two electrons will have the same set
of four quantum numbers.)
• Each Energy level can provide only two states namely, one with spin
up and other with spin down and hence only two electrons can be
occupied in a given energy level.
• So, it is assumed that the permissible energy levels of a free electron
are determined.
• It is assumed that the valence electrons travel in constant potential
inside the metal but they are prevented from escaping the crystal by
very high potential barriers at the ends of the crystal.
• In this theory, though the energy levels of the electrons are discrete,
the spacing between consecutive energy levels is very less and thus
the distribution of energy levels seems to be continuous.

Success of quantum free electron theory
• According to classical theory, which follows Maxwell-Boltzmann
statistics, all the free electrons gain energy. So it leads to much larger
predicted quantities than that is actually observed. But according to
quantum mechanics only one percent of the free electrons can absorb
energy. So the resulting specific heat and paramagnetic susceptibility
values are in much better agreement with experimental values.
• According to quantum free electron theory, both experimental and
theoretical values of Lorentz number are in good agreement with
each other.

Drawbacks of quantum free electron theory
• It is incapable of explaining why some crystals have metallic

properties and others do not have.
• It fails to explain why the atomic arrays in crystals including metals

should prefer certain structures and not others.

Conductivity of Conductors
According to the free electron theory,
Free electrons are called as conduction electrons & they forms the
“free electron cloud”
In absence of an external electric field the electron moves randomly in
all directions. Piece of Conductor
l
Random Motion

When an electric field is applied to the metal, the random motion becomes
directed. This directed motion is known as drift & the velocity gained by
the electron is called as drift velocity.
Piece of Conductor
l
Directed Motion
+ -
External Electric Field

•

Conductivity of Semiconductors
Figure shows the total current flowing in a semiconductor is a sum of
current flowing due to electrons & holes.
Electron
Holes

In a semiconductor, Let
ne = electron density in conduction band
np = hole density in valence band

µe = electron mobility
µp = hole mobility
ve = drift velocity of electron

vp = drift velocity of hole
A = cross section area of semiconductor
V = voltage applied across the semiconductor length

The current due to electrons is given by,
Ie = ne ve A e -------1)
And the current due to hole is given by

I = n v A e ------ 2)
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p p
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Extrinsic semiconductor
1. n-type semiconductor
In case of n-type semiconductor, electron concentration is much more greater than the hole
concentration.
... ne >> np or ne μe >> np μp
Hence, σn = e ne μe
If nd is electron concentration or concentration of donor atoms,
then, σn = e nd µe (as ne = nd)
2. p-type semiconductor
In p-type semiconductor, electron concentration is negligibly small in comparison to hole
concentration.
... np >> ne or np μp >> ne μe
Hence, σp = e np μp
If na is concentration of acceptor atoms,
then, σp = e na µp (as np = na)

Influence of external factors on conductivity
1. Temperature:
In case of metals, the increase in temperature increases the vibration of
lattice points. As the amplitude of vibration is greater, chances of
collision with electron increases. This decreases the drift velocity of the
free electrons. Thus the conductivity decreases & resistivity increases
with temperature in metals.
In case of semiconductors, as the energy gap between valence band &

conduction band is small, a rise in temperature excites an electron from
valence to conduction band. This creates electron hole pair & both will
participate in conduction. Thus the conduction charge density increases
with temperature. Therefore, in case of semiconductors the resistivity
decreases with increase in temperature.

Variation of resistivity with temperature
Resistivity (ρ)
Resistivity (ρ)
Temperature (k) Temperature (k)

Conductors Semiconductors

2. Light:
In case of metals, whenever a light is incident & energy of photon is
more than a critical value, an electron is ejected from a metal surface.
But this does not affect the overall resistivity of the metal. Therefore,
the resistivity of metals do not depend on light.
In case of semiconductors, just like temperature, light affects the
resistivity of semiconductors. When photon of energy equal to the band
gap is incident on semiconductor, the photon will be absorbed & an
electron will be excited to the conduction band. This increases the
number of conduction charge carriers & results in increase in
conductivity & decreases resistivity.
Resistivity (ρ)
Resistivity (ρ)
Light Intensity Light Intensity

Conductors Semiconductors
3. Impurity:
In metals, the presence of impurity increases the scattering of
conduction electron at impurity atoms, thereby decreasing the drift
velocity. The fall in drift velocity results in increase in resistivity &
decrease in conductivity. As the chances of collision increases with
impurity concentration, the resistivity also increases with impurity
concentration.
On other hand, in semiconductors the addition of proper impurity
(doping) increases the concentration of charge carriers. This increases
the conductivity & decreases the resistivity with impurity concentration.
Resistivity (ρ)
Resistivity (ρ)
Impurity concentration Impurity concentration

Metals Semiconductors
Fermi Energy:
The highest filled state in the highest energy band which contains
electrons in a metal, at 0 K is called Fermi level & its corresponding
energy is called the Fermi energy EF.
Fermi level in case of semiconductors may be defined as the energy
which corresponds to the centre of gravity of conduction electrons
and holes when “weighted” according to their energies.

Fermi-Dirac Probability Distribution
Function

Position of Fermi Level in Intrinsic
Semiconductors

Position of Fermi level in Intrinsic Semiconductor
Conduction band
Ec
Eg Fermi level EFin

Ev
Valence band
Position of Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor

Position of Fermi level in Extrinsic Semiconductor
1. n-type semiconductor:
Conduction band
Ec
EFn
Ed
Fermi level EFin
Eg
Ev
Valence band
a) T = 0 K

Conduction band
Ec
Ed
EFn
Fermi level EFin
Eg
Ev
Valence band
b) T > 0 K

2. p-type semiconductor:
Conduction band
Ec
Eg
Fermi level EFin
Ea
Ev EFp
Valence band
a) T = 0 K

Conduction band
Ec
Eg
Fermi level EFin
EFp
Ev Ea
Valence band
b) T > 0 K

Dependence of Fermi Level on temperature & doping
concentration
1. Temperature:
Conduction band
Ec
Ed
Efin EfN
Td Ti
Ev
Valence band
Variation of Fermi Level with temperature in case of N-type semiconductor

Ec Conduction band
Td Ti
Efin Efp
Ea
Ev
Valence band
Variation of Fermi Level with temperature in case of P-type semiconductor

Effect of impurity concentration on Fermi level:
N- type semiconductor
Conduction band Conduction band Conduction band

Ec Ec Ec
EfN
Ed
Eg
Eg
Eg
Ev Ev Ev
Valence band Valence band Valence band
a) Low level doping b) medium doping c) heavy doping

The addition of donor impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor leads to the
formation of discrete levels below the bottom edge of the conduction band.
At low impurity concentration, the impurity atoms are spaced far apart & do
not interact with each other.
With increase in impurity concentration the separation tends to decrease &

they interact. As a result the donor level splits & forms a energy band below
the conduction band.
Larger doping concentration, broaden the impurity band & at one stage it
overlap with conduction band. The broadening of donor levels into band is
accompanied by decrease in the band gap and upward displacement of Fermi
level. The Fermi level moves closer and closer to the conduction band and
finally moves in to conduction band as donor band overlap the conduction
band.
In a similar way in case of P- type semiconductor, the acceptor level broaden

& forms into band with increase in impurity concentration which ultimately
overlaps on the valence band. The Fermi level moves downwards closer to
valance band & finally at very high impurity concentration it will shift in to
valence band.
P-N Junction Diode
P-type N-type
- +
Free electrons
Holes - +
- +
- +
Depletion layer

1. Open circuit P-N junction (Zero bias):
Junction
P N
C. B. C. B.
EFN
EFP
V. B. V. B.
Non-equilibrium energy band picture of P-N junction

P-type Depletion N-type
C. B. region
C. B.
EF EF
V. B.
V. B.
Shifting of bands in P & N type semiconductor

2. Forward Bias:
P N
P-type N-type
C. B. e (VB – V)
C. B.
EF
EF
V. B.
V. B.

3. Reverse Bias:
P N
P-type N-type
C. B. e (VB + V)
C. B.
EF
EF
V. B.
V. B.
Junction transistor:
N P N P N P
E C E C
B B
E C E C
B B

Biasing of transistor:
N P N
IE IC
vBE vBC

Working of N-P-N transistor:
1. Unbiased N-P-N transistor:
N P N
Base
Emitter Collector
C. B.
C. B. C. B.
EF EF
V. B.
V. B. V. B.

2. Biased N-P-N transistor:
N P N
Base Collector
Emitter
e (VB - VBE) C. B.
C. B. e (VB + VBC)
EF
C. B.
EF
V. B.
V. B.
V. B.

Hall Effect:
When magnetic field is applied perpendicular to direction of current in
a conductor (or semiconductor), a potential difference develops along
an axis perpendicular to both current & magnetic filed.
This effect is known as Hall effect and the potential difference
developed is known as Hall voltage.
e EH I
d
Bev
w

Solar Cell
Solar cell is a device which converts light energy into electrical energy.
RL
P - type
N-type
Sun Light

Working of solar Cell
(Neutral) P VB N (Neutral)
⮦⮦
C.B.
- +
C.B.
- +
- +
V.B. - + V.B.
-} +
Depletion Region

Working of solar Cell
(Electrically +ve)
(Neutral) P (Electrically –ve)
N (Neutral)
VB
⮦⮦
C.B.
- +
C.B.
- +
- +
V.B. - + V.B.
-} +
Depletion Region
Minority charge carriers

P -type
N -type
P- type
+ - C.B.
+ - V.B.
N - type
Diffusion of electrons & holes and energy band diagram

corresponding to diffusion of electrons & holes

Solar cell
characteristics:
Current
Isc Pideal
Pm
Im
0 Vm Voc

Advantages of solar cell:
• It is pollution free source of energy.
• It is not harmful to human life.
• Input energy (i.e., solar energy ) is available
adequately.
• Input energy is free of cost.
• It can be used in remote area.
Disadvantages of solar cell:
• Solar cells are expensive (high production cost).
• They have very low efficiency.

Applications of solar cell:
Industrial:
• Telecommunication systems: To provide power to stand-alone systems.
• Emergency equipments: To provide battery supply to operate them in
disasters.
Thank
• Navigation You To provide power to marine beacons, airport, etc.
equipments:
• Meteorological stations: To build maintenance free devices.
Consumer:
• Batteries to consumer items ( calculators, clocks, watches,
torches, radios, fans, etc)
Social:
• Electric power: To provide electricity to remote villages and islands.
• Irrigation systems: To provide electricity for irrigation systems of portable
water.
• Purification systems: To provide electricity to purify water or fluids.
• Refrigeration systems: To store the vaccines for immunization.

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For more Subjects

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• Understand free electron theory and band theory in solids

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Energy bands structure in conductors.

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I) Intrinsic Semiconductor (Pure Semiconductor):

Silicon covalent bonding structure

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Hence the majority charge carriers in hole

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Electrons are treated as an ideal Electron energy levels are discrete

In the absence of an electrical ﬁeld, Electrons occupy energy levels

When an electric ﬁeld is applied, Electrons acquire additional energy

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• It is used to verify ohm’s law.

• It is used to explain the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.

• It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.

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• With help of this model we can’t explain the electrical conductivity

• Ferromagnetism cannot be explained by this theory.

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conductivity vary in different ways. Therefore K/σT is not a

constant. But in classical free electron theory, it is a constant in all

• The photoelectric effect, Compton effect and the black body

radiation cannot be explained by the classical free electron theory.

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• According to quantum mechanics, the energy of an electron in a metal is

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• It is incapable of explaining why some crystals have metallic

• It fails to explain why the atomic arrays in crystals including metals

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External Electric Field

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np = hole density in valence band

ve = drift velocity of electron

V = voltage applied across the semiconductor length

And the current due to hole is given by

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In case of semiconductors, as the energy gap between valence band &

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Temperature (k) Temperature (k)

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Light Intensity Light Intensity

Impurity concentration Impurity concentration

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Eg Fermi level EFin

Position of Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor

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