AVAF 209 Structures II

III. Basic Aerodynamics

A. The Atmosphere
B. Physics
C. The Airfoil
D. Lift & Drag
E. Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight Controls

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 1

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Controls
Aerodynamics:
The study of objects in motion
through the air and the forces that
produce or change such motion

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 2

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Controls

The Atmosphere
•In order to fly, we need to create an
upward force equal to the weight of the
aircraft by using the Atmosphere
•This force comes from the action of the
atmosphere on an airfoil

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 3

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Controls

The Atmosphere
•Is made of a mixture of gases
•21% Oxygen
•78% Nitrogen
•Rest is mix of inert gases (Argon, Neon, etc.)

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 4

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Controls

The Atmosphere
•Mixture remains constant regardless of altitude
•Weight of air changes as altitude changes
•Less weight above as we go up = less
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE exerted on
objects

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 5

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
CONDITIONS
•International Civil
Aeronautics
Organization
(ICAO) has set
standards for test
data

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 6

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
CONDITIONS
•Allows
comparison of test
data from one
location or day to
any other in world

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 7

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Pressure
•Is a force created by the weight of the
atmosphere above an object
•Is measured in IN-HG, MM-HG, PSI, or
MILLIBARS

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 8

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Pressure
•In-Hg or mm-Hg
•A tube is filled with
Mercury (Hg) and
then inverted in a
container of Mercury
•Hg will rise and
height is measured

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 9

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Pressure
•In-Hg or mm-Hg
•On a Standard Day
at SEA LEVEL (zero
altitude), the height
will be 29.92 inches
29.92 in-Hg) or 760
millimeters (760 mm-
Hg)
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 10
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Pressure
•In-Hg or mm-Hg
•This is called an
ABSOLUTE SCALE
measurement as a
VACUUM will form in
the top of the tube (=
ABSOLUTE ZERO
PRESSURE)
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 11
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Pressure
•Atmospheric pressure
will decrease by approx.
1 in-Hg for every 1,000
feet increase in altitude
•Known as the
LAPSE RATE

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 12

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Pressure
•An ALTIMETER
measures absolute
pressure and displays the
result in Feet Above Sea
Level (ASL)
•Notice KOLLSMAN
WINDOW (adjust to varying
local conditions)
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 13
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Pressure
•PSI
•Is a measurement
of FORCE / AREA
•The most common
units are POUNDS
PER SQUARE INCH

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 14

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Pressure
•PSI
•On a Standard Day
at Sea Level, the
atmosphere pushes
on objects with a
force of 14.69
pounds per square
inch of area
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 15
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Pressure
•PSI
•Since ½ of the air in
the atmosphere is
below 18,000 feet
ASL, the pressure
there is 7.34 psi

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 16

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Pressure
•PSI
•Is measured by an
Absolute scale and
is labeled PSIA

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 17

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Pressure
•Or a GAUGE scale
which uses
Atmospheric Pressure
as the zero reference
(= PSIG)

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 18

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Pressure
•Millibars
•Are used by Meteorologists (weather forecasters)
•Standard Day at Sea Level is 1013.2 mbs
•1 millibar approximately equals .75 in-Hg

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 19

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Temperature
•Four scales used:

•Celsius (used to
be Centigrade)

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 20

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Temperature
•Four scales used:

•Kelvin (Absolute
Celsius)

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 21

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Temperature
•Four scales used:

•Fahrenheit

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 22

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Temperature
•Four scales used:

•Rankine
(Absolute
Fahrenheit)

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 23

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Temperature
•Standard Day at
Sea Level:
•15o Celsius
•59o Fahrenheit
•2880 Kelvin
•519o Rankine

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 24

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Temperature
•As we go up in
altitude,
temperature goes
down
•3.54o F or 2o C per
1,000 feet
•ADIABATIC LAPSE
RATE
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 25
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Humidity
•Is amount of moisture in air
•Measured by RELATIVE HUMIDITY
•Is comparison of moisture present to amount air
can hold in percent
•Maximum amount is directly proportional to
temperature (hotter temp. = more moisture at
same Relative Humidity %)
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 26
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Humidity
•Standard Day is 0% humidity or Dry Air

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 27

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density
•Is measure of Mass per unit Volume
•Mass is the amount of matter in an object
•Can think of it as number of molecules
•Weight is the affect of Gravity on a mass
•Since we are dealing with objects near the
surface of the Earth, Weight and Mass are used
interchangeably in Aerodynamics
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 28
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density
•Air density is officially measured in SLUGS PER
CUBIC FOOT
•Standard Day at Sea Level = .002378 slugs/ft3
•Formula symbol is the Greek letter Rho (  )
•Is a major factor in developing Lift
•Varies directly with Atmospheric Pressure and
inversely with Temperature
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 29
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density Altitude
•Aviation uses
DENSITY ALTITUDE
as important measure
of density affects on
flying

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 30

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density Altitude
•Is a measure of an
aircraft’s performance
(necessary takeoff
distance, necessary
landing distance,
weight-carrying
capability, etc.)

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 31

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density Altitude
•“The altitude in a
Standard Day that has
the same density as
the Ambient
conditions.”
•Is the altitude the
aircraft thinks it’s at

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 32

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density Altitude
•Computed using a
Density Altitude Chart
•Must know
PRESSURE
ALTITUDE and
Ambient Temperature

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 33

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density Altitude
•Pressure Altitude is
altitude in the Standard
Day whose
atmospheric pressure
matches the local
atmospheric pressure

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 34

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density Altitude
•Press. Alt. Example:
•Ambient pressure
of 28.92 in-Hg
•Since pressure
decreases 1 in-
Hg/1000 feet,
Pressure Altitude =
1,000 feet ASL
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 35
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density Altitude
•Dens. Alt. Example:
•Pressure Altitude
can also be
determined for the
location you are by
adjusting the
Kollsman window to
29.92 and reading
the altitude
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 36
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density Altitude
•Dens. Alt. Example:
•Pressure = 25.92
in-Hg (= ? feet
Pressure Altitude)
•= 4,000 feet
•SL (29.92) – actual
(25.92) = 4 inches x
1000 ft.
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 37
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density Altitude
•Dens. Alt. Example:
•Pressure = 25.92
in-Hg (= ? feet
Pressure Altitude)
•= 4,000 feet
•Temperature =
80o F

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 38

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density Altitude
•Dens. Alt. Example:
•Density Altitude =
6,500 feet
6,500

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 39

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density Altitude
•Also is affected by the
Relative Humidity
•Water vapor has
about 62% of weight of
air = higher humidity =
less dense air = higher
Density Altitude
•= only affected by
about 5%
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 40
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Atmosphere Controls

•STANDARD DAY
•Density Altitude
•Generally speaking:
BEWARE OF HIGH,
HOT AND HUMID
CONDITIONS

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 41

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Laws of Physics which affect Controls

Aerodynamics
•Bernoulli's Principle
•“If the total energy of flowing air remains constant,
any increase in KINETIC energy creates a
decrease in POTENTIAL energy”
•Since the LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
ENERGY applies, the energies in the flow are only
changed

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 42

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Laws of Physics which affect Controls

Aerodynamics
•Bernoulli's Principle
•Kinetic
energy is
measured
as Velocity
•Potential
energy is
measured
as Pressure
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 43
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Laws of Physics which affect Controls

Aerodynamics
•Bernoulli's Principle
•In “throat”
of venturi:
•Velocity
goes up so
all air gets
through in
same time =
pressure
down
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 44
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Laws of Physics which affect Controls

Aerodynamics
•Newton’s Laws
•First Law:
•Law of Inertia
•A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body
in motion tends to remain in motion, until acted
upon by an outside force.

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 45

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Laws of Physics which affect Controls

Aerodynamics
•Newton’s Laws
•Second Law:
•Law of Acceleration
•Acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the
force applied and inversely proportional to the mass
of the body or a = F / m
•Or more useful to us: F = ma

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 46

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Laws of Physics which affect Controls

Aerodynamics
•Newton’s Laws
•Third Law
•Law of Reaction
•For every Action there is an Equal and
Opposite Reaction

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 47

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•Flight Forces
•As we looked at
before, there are four
forces being applied to
an airplane in flight:
•Lift (up)
•Weight (down)
•Thrust (forward)
•Drag (aft)
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 48
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•Flight Forces
•In order to understand these forces, we need to look at
VECTORS:

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 49

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•Flight Forces
•A Vector is an arrow whose length shows a value and it
points in the direction the value is being applied

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 50

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•Flight Forces
•To combine vectors, we place them with their starting
points joined (as on the left below)

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 51

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•Flight Forces
•And by COMPLETING THE SQUARE we can get the
RESULTANT vector (the combination of the other two)

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 52

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•Flight Forces
•If two forces are exactly opposing each other (such as Lift
and Weight) and have the same value, the resultant is zero

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 53

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•Flight Forces
•In STRAIGHT AND
LEVEL,
UNACCELERATED
FLIGHT, Thrust and Drag
are equal, Lift and Weight
are equal, and the aircraft
continues in a straight line
with no change in altitude
•The forces are said to be
in EQUILIBRIUM
Author: Harry L. Whitehead 54
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•Flight Forces
•In order to climb, we
must increase the Lift
Vector so there is no
longer an equilibrium
between Lift and Weight
•The Resultant of the
two is an upward force

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 55

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•Flight Forces
•In order to go faster
(Accelerate), we must
increase the Thrust
vector to get a Resultant
forward
•Etc.

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 56

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•Flight Forces
•Thrust is created by the
POWERPLANT and
PROPELLER
•Weight is the effect of
Gravity on the aircraft
•Drag is created by
movement of the aircraft
•Lift is created by the
Airfoils used as Wings
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 57
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•An Airfoil is a specially

designed surface which
produces a reaction to
air flowing across it
•Two theories:
•Bernoulli’s Principle
•Newton’s Laws

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 58

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•Subsonic airfoils can be

Asymmetrical or
Symmetrical
•Most airplanes use
Asymmetrical wings
•Blunt, rounded
LEADING EDGE
•Max. thickness about
1/3 of distance from L.E.
to TRAILING EDGE

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 59

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•There are many basic airfoil shapes

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 60

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•There are many basic airfoil shapes

•Early were very thin with definite

camber
•The Clark-Y was the standard through
the 1930s
•NACA developed the “modern”
asymmetrical shape in the 30s and it
was used for decades = smoother
airflow and greater lift with less drag
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 61
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•There are many basic airfoil shapes

•As aircraft started •Supersonic

to get near Mach airfoils were
1, the subsonic designed with
shapes caused sharp Leading and
shock waves to Trailing edges and
form and destroy the max thickness
lift and increase about ½ of the
drag tremendously chord distance

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 62

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•There are many basic airfoil shapes

•Next came the Supercritical design
•Reduces the velocity of the air
over the upper surface and delays
the drag rise occurring with the
approach of Mach 1
•NASA developed the GAW series for
General Aviation aircraft and give
higher lift with lesser drag than the
“modern”
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 63
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•In order to generate Lift,

an Airfoil must have an
ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
•This is defined as the
angle between the
CHORD and the
RELATIVE WIND (=
opposite the FLIGHT
PATH)

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 64

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•In order to generate Lift,

an Airfoil must have an
ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
•Don’t confuse this with
the ANGLE OF
INCIDENCE
•The angle formed
between the Chord
and the Longitudinal
Axis of the airplane

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 65

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•In order to generate Lift,

an Airfoil must have an
ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
•If the  is positive =
the Leading Edge is
higher than the Trailing
Edge = generate Lift in
the Upward direction
•Negative  =
downward Lift

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 66

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•In order to generate Lift,

an Airfoil must have an
ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
•As the  increases, the
amount of Lift also
increases

Airfoil simulation

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 67

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•In order to generate Lift,

an Airfoil must have an
ANGLE OF ATTACK ()

•This can be shown graphically using the

COEFFICIENT OF LIFT or CL
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 68
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•In order to generate Lift,

an Airfoil must have an
ANGLE OF ATTACK ()

•Notice the CL is positive even to a small negative 

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 69

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•In order to generate Lift,

an Airfoil must have an
ANGLE OF ATTACK ()

•And the CL peaks at some positive 

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 70

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
The Airfoil Controls

•In order to generate Lift,

an Airfoil must have an
ANGLE OF ATTACK ()

•Also, the CL starts to drop off if the  gets higher

•This is called a STALL and starts at CLmax or CRITICAL 
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 71
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•In order to generate Lift,

an Airfoil must have an
ANGLE OF ATTACK ()

•Stall is a SEPARATION OF AIRFLOW from the

upper wing surface = rapid decrease in lift
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 72
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•In order to generate Lift,

an Airfoil must have an
ANGLE OF ATTACK ()

•This occurs at the same  regardless of speed,

aircraft weight, or flight attitude
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 73
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•In order to generate Lift,

an Airfoil must have an
ANGLE OF ATTACK ()

•To eliminate this condition = reduce the  below

critical
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 74
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Other Factors Affecting Lift:

•Airspeed
•Faster = increased Lift
•Lift is increased as the square of the speed
•For example:
•At 200 mph a wing has 4 times the lift of the
same airfoil at 100 mph
•At 50 mph the lift is ¼ as much as at 100 mph

Airfoil simulation

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 75

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Other Factors Affecting Lift:

•Wing Planform
•View of the wing from above or below

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 76

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Other Factors Affecting Lift:

•Wing Planform
•Rectangular: excellent slow flight and stall occurs
first at root of wing (= good aileron control)

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 77

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Other Factors Affecting Lift:

•Wing Planform
•Elliptical: most efficient = least drag for given size but
difficult to manufacture and stalls all along Trail. Edge

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 78

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Other Factors Affecting Lift:

•Wing Planform
•Modified (or Moderate) Tapered: more efficient than
Rectangular and easier to build than Elliptical but still
stalls along Trailing Edge

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 79

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Other Factors Affecting Lift:

•Wing Planform
•SweptBack (and Delta): Good efficiency at high
speed but not very good at low

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 80

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Other Factors Affecting Lift:

•Camber
•Curve of the wing
•Increased Camber = increased airflow velocity over
the top surface and more downwash angle = more lift
•It also tends to lower the Critical 
•Trailing Edge Flaps use this to allow more lift at a
slower airspeed for landing and takeoff

Airfoil simulation

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 81

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Other Factors Affecting Lift:

•Aspect Ratio
•Is the Ratio of the
Wing’s SPAN to the
average Chord
•Higher Aspect Ratio
(“long and skinny”) =
increased lift and lower
stalling speed
•Used on Gliders and
TR-1 spy plane
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 82
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Other Factors Affecting Lift:

•Wing Area
•Is the total surface area of the wings
•Must be sufficient to lift max weight of the aircraft
•If wing produces 10.5 pounds of lift per square
foot at normal cruise speed = needs Wing Area of
200 square feet to lift 2,100 pounds of weight

Airfoil simulation

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 83

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Drag
•Is the force opposing Thrust
•Is the force trying to hold the aircraft back as it flies
and generally limits the maximum airspeed
•Is created by any aircraft surface that deflects or
interferes with the smooth air flow around the aircraft
•Drag is classified as two types:
•Induced
•Parasite

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 84

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Induced Drag
•The Airfoil shape (type of airfoil and amount of
Camber) and Wing Area create a force which comes
from the same forces as those which create Lift
•It is Directly Proportional to the Angle of Attack ()

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 85

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Induced Drag
•As  increases, the high
pressure on the bottom of
the wing flows around the
wing tips and “fills in”
some of the low pressure
on top
•This creates a WINGTIP
VORTEX and destroys
some of the wing’s lift or
increases its drag
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 86
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Induced Drag
•The strength of the
Vortex is proportional to
aircraft speed, weight,
and configuration
•These can be dangerous
for small aircraft flying
behind a large aircraft

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 87

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Induced Drag

•This effect can be reduced

by installing WINGLETS on
the tips of the wings
•Reduce the Vortex =
increased lift and
reduced drag

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 88

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Induced Drag

•This effect can also

be reduced by
installing TIP
TANKS on the tips
of the wings

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 89

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Induced Drag

•And/or by installing
DROOPED TIPS
•Used on STOL
(Short Take Off/
Landing) aircraft or
those designed for
heavy and slow
flight

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 90

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Induced Drag
•This can also be
shown by looking at the
COEFFICIENT OF
DRAG (CD) of the airfoil
•CD is proportional to
Angle of Attack () and
increases as 
increases

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 91

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Angle of Attack and Drag

•By combining the CL and CD curves we get a “Family” of

curves for any given airfoil
•Includes a combination known as Lift-to-Drag Ratio (L/D)
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 92
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Angle of Attack and Drag

•Peak L/D (L/Dmax) occurs at a given  which is the most

efficient  for the airfoil to operate at

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 93

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Angle of Attack and Drag

•Unfortunately, this may be at too low an  to generate

enough lift to fly (may not be able to fly fast enough)

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 94

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Parasite Drag
•Is the drag produced by the aircraft itself and is
proportional to Airspeed
•Is disruption of the airflow around the aircraft
•4 types:
•Form Drag
•Skin Friction Drag
•Interference Drag
•Profile Drag

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 95

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Parasite Drag
•Form Drag
•Created by any structure which extends into the
airstream
•Is directly proportional to the size and shape of
the structure
•Includes struts, antennas, landing gear, etc.
•Streamlining reduces Form Drag

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 96

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Parasite Drag
•Skin Friction Drag
•Caused by the roughness of the aircraft’s skin
•Includes paint, rivets, skin seams, etc.
•Causes small swirls (eddies) of air = drag
•Improved by flush riveting and cleaning and
waxing the skin

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 97

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Parasite Drag
•Interference Drag
•Occurs when various air currents around the
aircraft structure intersect and interact with each
other
•Example: mixing of air where fuselage and
wings meet
•Improved by installing FAIRINGS

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 98

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Parasite Drag
•Profile Drag
•Drag formed by the Frontal Area of the aircraft
•Can’t be changed or affected by anything except
Retractable Landing Gear

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 99

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Parasite Drag
•Combined Parasite
Drag Airspeed Effect
•Parasite Drag
increases
exponentially as
airspeed increases
•IS LOWEST AT
LOW AIRSPEEDS
and increases
rapidly
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 100
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Parasite Drag
•Can best be reduced
by Retractable Landing
Gear & streamlining
•Weight and
complication is more
than compensated by
decrease in Parasite
Drag at higher
airspeeds

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 101

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Total Drag
•Induced Drag is also
somewhat dependent
on Airspeed (indirectly)
•Since it is Inversely
Proportional to  and
since the  is highest at
low airspeeds = Induced
Drag is highest at low
airspeeds and drops off
rapidly
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 102
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Total Drag
•By combining the two
Drag curves, we get Total
Drag
•At low airspeeds, Induced
Drag predominates so
curve goes down
•At higher airspeeds,
Parasite Drag
predominates so curve
goes up
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 103
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Total Drag
•At some airspeed it will
be at its lowest value =
most efficient airspeed
to fly at = best Lift/Drag
Ratio or L/Dmax
•However, like L/Dmax
when looking at the 
curve, it may not be
possible to operate at
this airspeed
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 104
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Other Design Considerations

•Other factors affect the structure and design of an
aircraft while in flight besides just Lift and Drag
•These are:
•Load Factor
•Propeller Factors
•Engine Torque
•Gyroscopic Precession
•Asymmetrical Thrust
•Spiraling Slipstream
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 105
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Load Factor
•Load Factor is a
function of Banking
an aircraft
•You can also think
of it as creating a
curved flight path =
CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE puts more
downward force
(LOAD) on the
structure Author: Harry L. Whitehead 106
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Load Factor
•So in order to
maintain altitude =
need to pull back on
the yoke or stick and
increase the
engine’s power to
increase the overall
Lift component

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 107

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Load Factor
•Load Factor is the
Ratio of the load
supported by the wings
to the actual weight of
the aircraft
•Below about 20o Bank
Angle it is equal to 1G
in force
•= the weight is not
being increased
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 108
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Load Factor
•As the Bank Angle
increases above that the
“G-force” also goes up
exponentially
•For example: at about
60o of Bank, the Load
Factor is 2
•The wings feel the
aircraft weighs twice
as much as normal
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 109
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Load Factor
•The FAA establishes
LIMIT LOAD FACTORS
for airplanes to be
designed to
•= the maximum Load
Factor the aircraft can
withstand without
permanent deformation
or structural damage

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 110

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Load Factor
•For a NORMAL
CATEGORY airplane =
3.8 positive Gs and
1.52 negative Gs
•For a UTILITY
CATEGORY = 4.4
positive Gs and 1.76
negative Gs

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 111

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Load Factor
•For an ACROBATIC
CATEGORY airplane =
6 positive Gs and 3
negative Gs

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 112

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Torque

•Torque is a force
applied to the airplane
from the Reaction to
the spinning Propeller
(Newton’s 3rd Law)
•It causes a roll to the
left = opposite of the
normal rotation of U.S.
designed engines

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 113

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Torque

•On single-engine
airplanes, it’s common
to use aileron trim tabs
to compensate
• On multi-engine
airplanes, it’s common
for the engines to
rotate in opposite
directions which
cancels out the Torque
Effect Author: Harry L. Whitehead 114
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Gyroscopic Precession

•A rotating Propeller
also acts like a
GYROSCOPE and
exhibits two gyroscopic
characteristics:
•RIGIDITY IN
SPACE
•PRECESSION

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 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Gyroscopic Precession

•Precession is the
phenomenon which
says that any force
applied to a Gyroscope
is felt 90o later in
direction of rotation

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 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Gyroscopic Precession

•Any rapid change in
aircraft pitch = a
precessive force
applied to the prop.
•Most commonly
felt by Conventional
Gear airplanes just
prior to Takeoff
when the tail wheel
is raised
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 117
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Gyroscopic Precession

•This causes a
downward force
(action) applied to the
prop
•Which causes a
reaction 90o later =
yaw to the left

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 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Asymmetrical Thrust

•At high aircraft angles
of attack and during
rapid climbs, the prop
blades see differing
angles of attack during
their rotation

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 119

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Asymmetrical Thrust

•The side of the prop
“disk” on which the
prop blade is
descending has a
higher  than the
ascending blade =
more lift
•NOTE: rotation is
clockwise as viewed
from the pilot’s seat
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 120
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Asymmetrical Thrust

•This change in  comes from the vertical movement and
a corresponding change in Relative Wind of the airfoil

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 121

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Asymmetrical Thrust

•Since the airfoil (prop) is rotating in addition to flying, the
Relative Wind is now made of two factors:

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 122

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Asymmetrical Thrust

•The Flight Path vector and a vertical (rotation) vector
•Descending blade (right side) = vertical vector is down

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 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Asymmetrical Thrust

•Which gives us a new Relative Wind and a higher 

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 124

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Asymmetrical Thrust

•Since the descending
(right) side of the prop
has a higher  it is also
producing more Thrust
•The opposite occurs
on the ascending side
and it produces less
Thrust
• = tendency to yaw to
left in rapid climb
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 125
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Spiraling Slipstream

•On a single-engine
airplane, the
SLIPSTREAM from the
propeller “wraps” itself
around the fuselage in a
Spiraling manner
•It will generally then
strike the left side of the
Vertical Stabilizer and
cause a yaw to the left
05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 126
 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Spiraling Slipstream

•Since this is a function of
how much air the prop is
pushing which is directly
proportional to the Thrust
being produced = more
yaw at higher power
settings

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 127

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Lift and Drag Controls

•Propeller Factors: Spiraling Slipstream

•It’s not uncommon to
find the Vertical Stabilizer
installed with a slight
offset to the left to cause
a constant compensating
force
•This is usually set up to
balance the Slipstream
affect during Cruise flight

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 128

 III. Basic Aerodynamics

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Controls

05/17/24 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 129