Reasoning and Argument

 Learning Goals
1. Define reasoning and argument
2. Compare inductive and deductive reasoning
3. Understand the relationship between the premises and
conclusions of arguments; and
4. Discuss the two aspects in assessing the worth of an
argument.
Nature of Reasoning

 Reasoning is a process by which the mind, unable to

pronounce upon the agreement or disagreement of two
ideas, resolves the difficulty and reaches pronouncement
by bringing in a third idea which it knows in relation to
the first two.
Method of Reasoning

1. Inductive reasoning involves

proceeding from individual or particular
data to a whether or universal conclusion.
 Deductive Reasoning entails proceeding
from universal data to a particular and
individual conclusion.
Nature of Arguments
 In the study of logic and critical thinking, an argument is
group of truth-claims of which one (called the conclusion)
is supported by others (called premises), which are
intended or understood to provide support (evidence) for
that one truth-claim. Logicians use the terms proposition,
statement, and assertion when referring to truth-claims.
Elements of an Arguments

 The basic elements of an argument are

the premises and conclusion.
 Premises are support statements. They usually
flagged by indicators such as these:
 Since as indicated by
 Because the reason is that
 For for the reason that
 Whereas may be inferred from
 As may be derived from
 Follows from may be deduced from
 As shown by In view of the fact that
 Inasmuch as as evidenced by
2. Conclusion is the statement being supported .
It is usually flagged by indicators such as:
Therefore if follows that
hence we may infer
thus I conclude
so which shows that
accordingly which means that
In consequence which entails that
Proves that which allows us to infer
As a result which points to the conclusion that
Note Bene:

 The presence of conclusion- and

premise- indicators often, though not
always, signals that what follows is
either the conclusion or a premise of an
argument.
Properties of Arguments

 To assess the worth of an argument , only two

aspects need to be considered, viz, the truth of the
premises and correctness (or validity or soundness)
of the reasoning from the premises up to the
conclusion
Only deductive arguments may be assessed as valid or invalid.
Inductive arguments are assessed as strong (or weak) and correct (or
incorrect), but not as valid or invalid.

 Thus, it is important to consider the following points.

 1. Truth: a property of proposition and not of arguments. If a
proposition is true, it is labeled as “true”.
 2. Validity: a property of deductive arguments and not of
propositions ( and not of inductive arguments). If a deductive
argument has a good structure, it is termed “correct” or “strong”
(and not a ‘valid” or “true”)
 3. Soundness: a property of deductive arguments . A deductive
argument is “sound” when it is valid and all its propositions are true.