FALLACIES

Common mistakes in thinking

All Rabbits have long ears.
I have long ears.
Therefore, I am a rabbit.
Nature of Fallacies
The term fallacy is derived from the Latin infinitive “Fallere”,
which means “to deceive” or “to appear false or deceptive”.
Hence, a fallacy is defined as a deceptive, illogical, and
misleading argument; it is an error resulting from the
violation of any rule of logic. It is a false reasoning which
has the appearance of truth.
Sophism or Sophistry – committed
with the intention to deceive or mislead
an opponent.
Paralogism – when is done
unknowingly, or due to the ignorance of
the rules of reasoning.
Kinds of Fallacies
1. Fallacies of Relevance
2. Fallacies of Presumption
3. Fallacies in Language
1. Fallacies of Relevance
The mistaken arguments under this
classification rely on premises that seem to
be relevant to the conclusion but in fact are
not.
A. Argumentum ad Baculum (Argumentum to
Force)
An argument to force occurs when someone resorts to
force (or the threat of force) to push others to accept a
conclusion.

THIS FALLACY IS OFTEN USED BY POLITICIANS,

AND CAN BE SUMMARIZED AS “MIGHT MAKES
RIGHT”.
Example:

“There is ample proof of the truth

of the Bible. All those who refuse
to accept that truth will burn in
hell.”
I will give you a failing mark,
unless you give me a high rating
in the teacher evaluation survey.
A suitor who fails to win the hand
of a girl in courtship threatens
that he would get back at her
family.
B. Argumentum ad Crumenam (Argument to the
Money)
This fallacy is committed when the appeal is made
to the sense of greed or cupidity of an individual.
Instead of reasoning out of an argument, money is
used , for instance , to bribe the opponent to
concede.
Example:
Please give me a passing mark,
Sir. Ako na ang bahala sa iyo.
Pwede nating pag-usapan , Sir ,
kung magkano.
3. Argumentum ad Hominem (Argument to the man).

This fallacy is committed when an attack is aimed not at

the claims being made or the merits of the argument, but
at the opponent or the person speaking. Thus, in
argumentum ad hominem , it is the person who presents
the argument who is being attacked , not the issue or the
conclusion of an argument.
Nota Bene:

It is known to Filipinos as black propaganda , character

assassination , mudslinging , expose’, bomba , lambing, or
kabastusan. Its lowest form is the insult, curse or mura. A
Filipino , for example , when provoked or distressed , resorts
to repertoire of curses such as pangit, hayop, tanga, gago,
bastos, bobo, torpe, sip-sip, langka, lusa ,alingnganga , abno
or walanghiya. Insult, of course, do not prove a point. If any,
it shows poor breeding.
Examples:
How can my opponent be relied upon? He is an ex-
convict.
Is this the person you are going to marry? He has
the kind of face that only his mother would like to
see.
You claim that atheists can be moral yet
I happen to know that you abandoned
your wife and children.
d. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Argument to
Ignorance).

When it is argued that a proposition is true on the

ground that is has not been proven false, or when it is
argued that a proposition is false because it has not been
proven true, argumentum ad ignorantiam is committed.
Examples:

Of course , telepathy and other

psychic phenomena do not exist.
Nobody has shown any proof that
they are real.
 The existence of purgatory must be true,
because nobody has ever successfully defended
that it is just a product of imagination.
E. Argumentum ad Misericordiam (Argument to
Pity)
Argument to pity is a fallacious argument that
arises when an appeal to evidence is replaced by
an appeal to pity, mercy, or sympathy.
Examples:
You must accept that 1+1=46, after all I’m
dying .”
While one may pity the other person because
he/she is dying, it would hardly make his/her
claim true.
I’m positive that my work will meet
your requirements. Besides, I really
need the job because my
grandmother is sick.
f. Argumentum ad Populum (Argumentum to the People)
One commits this fallacy when one attempts to win acceptance of
an assertion by appealing to a large group of people. This argument,
instead of proving an issue by reason, appeals to popular
sentiments, opinions, biases, idiosyncrasies, or emotions of people.
This form of fallacy is often characterized by emotive language.
 Examples:

Buy this brand X detergent bar

because most Visayans use it.
Popular basketball stars wear Nike
shoes. I think the best thing to do is
buy this brand of shoes.
 A priestcalls people for repentance
and religious renewal by explaining
natural calamities of God’s wrath.
G. Argumentum ad Verecundiam
(Argument to Authority ).
This fallacy appeals to an authority (a
person or any source) to try to win
support for an assertion.
Example:
According to Senator A, Filipinos
are poor because they are lazy.
There is God because
my professor says so.
 H. Ignoratio Elenchi (Ignorance of
Refutation ).
 This fallacy consists in proving something
other than that which is supposed to be
proven. Thus, this fallacy is also called
“ignoring the issue”, missing the point and
evading the question.
 Examples:
The retention of the colleges has affected
many students, specifically the poor. The
only solution to this is to abolish the policy.
 The supply of food is insufficient to
a growing population. But birth
control regulates population growth
. Therefore, birth control assures
sufficiency of food.
 In the second example, Birth control regulates
population growth is true. But, birth control does
not provide food. Only increased productivity in
agriculture and industry can assure sufficiency of
food supply. The argument entirely misses the
point.
i. Non sequitur
This is a Latin phrase which means “it
does not follow”. This fallacy is
committed when the conclusion of an
argument is not logically connected to its
premises.
 Examples

As a student of a Catholic institution , I

will become an overseas contract
worker.
 John
is an American,
therefore, he is good in
dancing.
 Mahalloves Mura because Mura
loves Mahal.
 J. Tu Quoque

This term literally means “you too”, which can
also translate to “you’re another or look who’s
talking. It occurs when one argues that an action
is acceptable because the opponent has
performed it.
 Example

You say I should not

smoke , but why are you
smoking.
 2. Fallacies of Presumption
In this category, the mistaken arguments arise
from dependence on a proposition that it is
assumed to be true, but is in fact false or
dubious or without warrant.
a. Begging the Question
This is a fallacy in which the premises include the
claim that the conclusion is true(directly or
indirectly) or assume that the conclusion is true.
 Examples
It such actions were not illegal , then
they would not be prohibited by the law.
 Thebelief in God is universal.
After all, everyone believes in
God.
 B. Fallacy of Accident
 This fallacy arises when what is
accidental is confused with what
is essential .
 Examples
 Brown is a color. A Filipino is
brown. Therefore, a Filipino is a
color.
 Thereare old men who smoke.
Therefore, smoking is not
dangerous to your health.
 This is not my professor because my
professor wears glasses , and this man
is not wearing glasses.
c. Fallacy of False Cause
This Fallacy, also called post hoc, occurs when the
arguer points to something as the cause of an event
simply because the event followed it. Superstitious
beliefs are examples of this fallacy.
 Example
I met an accident on Friday the 13th. That is a
very unlucky day and a diabolic number
indeed.
 Jill cut the acacia tree near the house. The
following day he got sick. therefore, the
cutting of the acacia tree caused Jill’s illness.
d. Fallacy of Complex Question
This fallacy is committed when a single question
that is actually of two (or more) separate question
is asked, and the single answer is then applied to
both questions.
Examples
Have you stopped cheating on exams?
Where did you hide the cookies you stole?
 3. Fallacies in Language
 Mistaken arguments in this group are due to lack
of preciseness in the words, phrases, or sentences
used to express thoughts.
3. Accent or Prosody
Arises when a false stress of voice is placed
upon a given word in order to mislead,
confuse, or produce a wrong interpretation.
 Examples
 Do not (1) use (2) your cell phone while (3) inside the church.
Accentuated word 1: using a cellular phone is not allowed .
Accentuated word 2: only your cellular phone is not allowed. (you
may use other cell phones except your cell phone, or you may use
anything except cell phone.
Accentuated word 3: you are not allowed to use it inside the church.
(you may use it outside the church.
This injunction declares: thou shall not covet thy
neighbor’s wife. But, Mrs. Natividad is not my
neighbor. Therefore, I can covet her.
b. Amphiboly
Occurs when the premises used in an
argument are ambiguous because of
careless or ungrammatical phrasing. It is a
statement with double meaning.
 Boy: dad is it okay for waiters to walk around the restaurant without their
pants on ?
 Dad: oh, of course not, son, they could get arrested for indecent exposure and
restaurant closed.
 Boy: but, West Grill is still open. And yet eat there everyday.
 Dad: yeah, that’s right, but what does that have to do with your first question.?
 Boy: I heard that at West Grill they serve iced tea bottomless. How come
nobody ever gets arrested ?
c. Fallacy of Composition
Is committed due to the assumption that the whole has the
characteristics of its parts. This happens when one
transfers the characteristics, the whole must necessarily
have them.
 Examples
A Tiger eats more food than a human being.
Therefore, tigers, as a group, eat more food than
do all the humans on earth.
 Atoms are colorless , cats are made of
atoms , so cats are colorless.
d. Fallacy Division
Is committed when one assumes that the
parts have the characteristics of the whole.
This is the opposite of the fallacy of
composition.
 Examples:

 You are studying at a college for rich students.

Therefore, you must be rich.
 Ants can destroy a tree. Therefore,
this ant can destroy a tree.
c. Equivocation
Comes from Latin terms equi (equal) and vox (voice), which
together means “with equal voice.” when a term is used univocally
in an argument , it has the same meaning throughout, but when it is
used equivocally, more than one meaning is given equal voice. This
fallacy consists in using single term with different meanings.
 Examples:
logic teaches you how to argue
People argue entirely to much
therefore we don’t need to teach people logic.
f. Fallacy of Figure of Speech
Occurs when one concludes that a similarity in the
construction of one term with another establishes a
corresponding similarity in their meanings. One
argues from the construction of one word to the
form and the construction of another.
Insecure is the contradictory of secure. insincere is
also the contradictory of sincere. Therefore,
inflammable is the contradictory of flammable.
g. Fallacy of Hasty Generalization
Occurs from a few instances or cases. The
truths in the individual cases cited by the
arguer are insufficient to represent a
universal truth.
 Example

 The leader of the group that robbed the bank was

a policeman. Some policeman are protectors of
criminal syndicates. Obviously, all policemen
cannot be trusted as protectors of all