Fallacies

Prepared by; Fevvie Von G. Asistio, MALT,

MARE
- refer to errors in reasoning.

- comes from the Latin term “fallere”

which means to deceive.
- also called “paralogism or sophism”

- Sophism is a fallacy committed with the

intention to deceive or mislead an
opponent.

- Paralogism is a fallacy employed

unknowingly or due to the ignorance of
the rules of correct reasoning.
A. Formal Fallacy – is one which involves an error in the form,
arrangement or technical structure of an argument. It is
committed mainly due to lack of skill in reasoning and this in
turn is due to lack of training in the logical process.

B. Informal Fallacy – is committed when either irrelevant

psychological factor are allowed to distort the reasoning
process. The focus in this type is not on the form of the
argument but on the meaning of the argument.

B.1 – Fallacy of Language and Ambiguity

B.2 – Fallacy of Relevance
B.1. Fallacy of Language/Ambiguity
- it expresses lack of preciseness in
the words, phrases or sentence used
to express thought.
a. Equivocation

- this fallacy is committed when a word

carrying different meanings is used in the
same context in a particular argument.

- this fallacy is also called the fallacy of

four terms.
Sino ang tunay na mayaman?

Bulag: Walang Kita.

Chinese: Liit Kita.

Duling: Doble kita.

Pornstar: Lahat kita.

b. Amphiboly

- it is committed when the awkward construction of

one’s sentence allows a multiple interpretation.

- The grammatical construction of a sentence is not

clear and is therefore open to different
interpretations.

- The fallacy arises from the ambiguous connection of

words in a sentence.
c. Fallacy of Accent

-this fallacy arises from a false accent

or a false emphasis in speech.

- a false stress of voice is placed upon a

given word in order to mislead, confuse
or produce a wrong interpretation.
d. Fallacy of Composition

- consist in taking collectively what should

be taken individually
a. Columban College celebrates its 60th years as
a prime educational institution, therefore all
students of Columban College is 60 years old.

b. Ms. Single Forever is an old maid. Ms. Single

Forever is mean and cranky. All old maids are
mean and cranky.

c. Mr B is a playboy, he has a wife, a girlfriend

and a fling. So therefore all men are playboy.
e. Fallacy of Division

- consist in taking individually what should

be taken collectively.
a. Sophia’s hair is damaged therefore
each strand is damaged.

b. The cell phone rings; its parts, like

antenna, battery and keypads, also do.
f. Fallacy of Word Construction

- infers a similarity of meaning from

similarity of the material pattern of the
two words.
Taong mahilig magmagic; magikero.

Taong mahilig mambasura; basurero.

Taong palaging nasa gimik; gimikero.

Taong mahilig sa babae; babaero

Taong palaging nasa kanto; ????

B.2. Fallacy of Relevance

- arises when something about an

argument tempts us to simply to overlook
that fact that there really is no connection
between the premises and the conclusion.

- fallacies of this sort is called fallacies of

relevance (ignoratio elenchi)
1. Accident

-committed when anyone argues that

what is true as a general is also true in
special cases.
a.Birds normally can fly. But a penguin is a
bird. Therefore a penguin can fly.

b.“Thou shall not kill…”

c.Cutting people with a knife is a crime.

Surgeon cut people with knives. Therefore
surgeons are criminals.
2. Petitio Principii

-it is called begging the question if the

argument fails to prove anything because it
somehow takes for granted what it is
supposed to prove.

- the premise of the argument is simply a

restatement of the conclusion.
3. Argumentum Ad Hominem (Attack against Man)

3.1. Abusive- consist in attacking the person instead of proving

or disproving the point at the issue. This is not a fallacy but a
method of discrediting the authority of the speaker while
deviating from the real issue.

3.2. Circumstantial(poisoning the well). It directs attention to

the special circumstances that might cause the first arguer to
take such particular issue.

3.3. Tu Quoque - it points to hypocrisy or corrupt nature of

the first arguer to discredit the argument presented.
4. Argumentum Ad Populum (Appeal to
People)

- Committed when one attempts to win a

popular assent to a conclusion by using
persuasively emotive language.

- Faced with the task of mobilizing public

sentiment for or against a particular
measure.
5. Argumentum Ad Misericordiam
(Appeal to Pity)

-consist in pleading for mercy and

disregarding the point in question.
 We cannot condemn this
drug dealer because he is the
only one that supports his
family. His wife is sick with
cancer and he has five young
children…
6. False Cause

-it mistakes what is not the cause

of a given effect for its real cause.
1. Andrea became crazy because she took a
bath during her menstrual period.

2. Ivanna did not pass her licensure

examinations for teachers because she did
not break the pencil she used after the
exams.

3. The couple broke up because it is Friday

the 13th.
7. Argumentum Ad Vercundiam (Appeal
to Misplaced Authority)

- committed if one presents the

opinion of a person who is not an
authority in the field in question.
8. Argumentum Ad Baculum (Appeal
to Force)

-appeals to physical force or moral

pressure rather than the merit of
the point at issue.
9. Appeal to Advantage

- is made to a person to adhere to a

policy or perform an act contrary to
the person’s will but he is forced to do
it because the advantage preferred is
given.
1. A suspect for the crime of rape is
offering the witness five million pesos
provided that this witness promises not to
testify against him.

2. Student A offers to pay the last two

instalments of his professor’s condominium
if the professor’s agrees to change Student
A grade from failed to passed.
10. Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam
(Appeal to Ignorance)

-committed whenever one argues that

something must be true on the basis
that it has not been proved false or false
on the basis that it has not been proved
true.
1. Mr. Swerte was pronounced innocent
because the court was not able to find
sufficient evidence to prove him guilty.
Therefore Mr. Swerte is not guilty.

2. Breast augmentation must be effective.

There has not been any single patient
who come back and complained.
Thought to Ponder on: