FALLACIES IN LOGIC

Philosophy and Logic

31 January 2019

Rexor H. Magbutay
College of Arts and Scienes

Northwest Samar State

 FALLACY

A fallacy is an argument that deceives, i.e. an

argument that appears to be correct or valid but is
actually not. It appears to be true. Hence, a fallacy
borders between truth and lie. It is a half-truth
(Bachhuber, 1954).

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 FORMAL AND INFORMAL FALLACY:
DISTINCTION

Formal fallacy – in which the argument violates a

rule of logical system of which that argument is a part;
a violation of structure.

Informal fallacy – rather are rooted either in the

failure of the evidence to be relevant to the conclusion
or in some linguistic ambiguity.

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 AMBIGUITY IN COMMUNICATION

“Only congress has the power to amend laws.

Therefore, the law of supply and demand can be
amended by congress only.”

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 MATERIAL FALLACIES

A. Linguistic fallacies
B. Fallacies of relevance

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 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

1. The Fallacy of Equivocation

- when one of the terms in the argument is
used in more than one context. Here, a single
term is used with two or more meanings in the
same argument.
 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

1. The Fallacy of Equivocation

Example:
Happiness is the end of life.
The end of life is death.
Therefore, death is happiness.
 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

2. The Fallacy of Amphiboly

- involves the use of sentences which can be
interpreted in multiple ways with equal
justification. It is the fallacy of ambiguous
construction. It occurs whenever the whole
meaning of a statement can be taken in more
than one way, and is usually the fault of careless
grammar.
 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

2. The Fallacy of Amphiboly

Examples:
French language teacher
The anthropologists went to a remote
area and took photographs of some
native women, but they weren’t
developed.
 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

3. The Fallacy of Accent

- refers to the alteration of meaning/
interpretation of statements, depending on the
stress on the words. The accenting of certain words
or phrases can give a meaning quite different
from the intended, and can add implications
which are not part of the literal meaning.
 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

3. The Fallacy of Accent

Example:
refuse (stress on the first syllable) –
trash or garbage
refuse (stress on the second) – to
express oneself as unwilling to
accept
 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

3. The Fallacy of Accent

Example:
That is not your project.
That is not your project.
 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

4. The Fallacy of Composition

- occurs when it is claimed that what is true
for individual members of a class is also true
for the class considered as a unit. It is fallacious to
suppose that what is true of the parts must also be
true of the new entity which they collectively
make up.
 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

4. The Fallacy of Composition

Example:
This must be a good orchestra because
each of its members is a top musician.
I have gathered into one brigade all of
the strongest and finest men in the
army. So, this will be my strongest
brigade.
 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

4. The Fallacy of Composition

The fallacy arises from a failure to recognize
that the group is a distinct entity of which the
truth of an individual entity cannot be said to
be the truth of the collective entity.
 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

5. The Fallacy of Division

- the counterpart of the Fallacy of
Composition. The truth of a collective cannot
be the truth of an entity taken singly.
 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

5. The Fallacy of Division

Example:
Team Espana is football’s top team;
Rodriguez is a member of the team;
obviously he is a very good athlete.
Singapore is a very wealthy country, so
if he comes from there, he must be
wealthy.
 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

6. The Fallacy of Specific Accidents

- also called ambiguous extension of a term
emphasizing the nonessential quality or
property of an entity.
 A. LINGUISTIC FALLACIES

6. The Fallacy of Specific Accidents

Example:
What you bought yesterday, you will
eat it tonight.
You bought raw meat yesterday; you
will eat raw meat tonight.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

1. Dicto Simpliciter
- an argument based on an unqualified
generalization.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

1. Dicto Simpliciter
Example:
Exercise is good. Therefore, everybody
should exercise.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

2. Hasty Generalization
- a generalization reached too hastily. There
are too few instances to support such a
conclusion.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

2. Hasty Generalization
Example:
Singing is a natural mechanism. It is
easy.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

3. Post Hoc
- associating one thing with another with
almost no basis.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

3. Post Hoc
Example:
Let’s not invite Bill on our picnic.
Every time we take him out with us, it
rains.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

4. Contradictory Premises
- a seemingly absurd or self-contradicting set
of statements or propositions that may in fact
be true.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

4. Contradictory Premises
Example:
If God can do anything, can He make a
stone so heavy that He won’t be able
to lift it?
If Pinnocchio said “My nose will grow
longer now,” will it grow?
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

5. Ad Misericordiam
- the fallacy committed when appealing to the
sense of sympathy. The product is no
argument at all.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

5. Ad Misericordiam
Example:
Boss asks: “What are your
qualifications for the job?”
Applicant answers: “I have a wife and
six children at home. My
family has nothing to eat.”
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

6. False Analogy
- treating different things in a common
ground or context.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

6. False Analogy
Example:
Surgeons have X-rays to guide them
during operations; lawyers have briefs
to guide them during a trial; carpenters
have blueprints to when building a
house. Students should be allowed to
look at their textbooks during
examinations, too.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

7. Hypothesis Contrary to Fact

- refers to a hypothetical proposition to
which an actual event is being anchored to.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

7. Hypothesis Contrary to Fact

Example:
If you had not studied, you would have
not passed.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

8. Poisoning the Well

- treating with snide/negative remarks even
before the presentation of evidence.
 B. FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

8. Poisoning the Well

Example:
My opponent is a notorious liar. You
can’t believe anything he says.