Judgment

 NATURE OF JUDGEMENT

Judgment is the act of the intellect by which the agreement or disagreement

of two ideas is pronounced (Glenn, 1957). The mind declares whether one
idea (predicate) applies or does not apply to another idea (subject).

For example, if the ideas man and mortal being (i.e., being that must die) are
compared and found to be in agreement with each other, the mind pronounces
“Man is mortal’. On the other hand, if the mind finds the ideas man and spirit
in disagreement with each other, it pronounces “Man is not spirit”.

Pronouncement is the case of judgment is predication. One idea is predicated

of another as agreeing or not agreeing with it. In the examples above, mortal
is predicated of another in judgment is called the predicate idea or, simply,
the predicate. The idea of which the predicate is enunciated or predicated
subject idea or, simply, the subject.
Ways of viewing Judgment

A Judgment may be viewed in terms of

the scope of its subject or in terms of
the accuracy , completeness, or
necessity with which the predicate
applies the subject.
1.Scope of the subject
a. Universal Judgment
b. Particular Judgment
c. Singular Judgment
d. Indefinite Judgment
 Judgment is universal when its subject is taken in full
scope of meaning or in full extension.

Example: “All men are mortal”

 c.Singular Judgment. Judgment is singular
when its subject refers to a specific
individual.

 Example : “This man is my father”.

 d. Indefinite Judgment. Judgment is
indefinite when it does not indicate
whether the subject is to be understood in
full or only in partial extension.

 Example: “Men like sports”

 b.
Particular Judgment. Judgment is
particular when its subject is taken in
partial extension.

 Example: “Some men are alike”

2. Accuracy, completeness, or necessity with
which the predicate applies to the subject.

a. Specific Judgment – is specific when the predicate

is the species or complete essence of the subject.
b. Generic Judgment- Judgment is generic when the
predicate is the genus or essential class of the
subject. Here, the predicate defines the subject
but not perfectly ;it defines the subject by that
part which the subject has in common with
another idea.
c. Differential judgment- judgment is differential when the
predicate is that part of the essence of the subject that
differentiates it from the other essence with which it has a
common genus. In the case of “man”, rational indicates the
part by which man is differentiated from brutes.
d. Proper judgment- judgment is proper when the predicate
indicates something that belongs to the subject and no
other, i.e., proper to the subject alone, although it is not
part of the subject’s essence and is not necessary that it be
associated with the subject. The predicate may happen to
agree with the subject.
Elements of Judgment

1.Two ideas in the mind.

The mind must have two ideas for it to
make a judgment. Unless the mind
understand each of these ideas, there is
no guarantee that the mind will express
a sound judgment about them.
2. Comparison of two ideas by the mind.
The mind checks on the two ideas together, studies
their comprehension, and recognizes their identity or
non-identity.

3. Predication or pronouncement by the mind of the

agreement or disagreement of the two ideas. This is
precisely the essence of judgment for the mind to
express in a mental act the agreement or disagreement
of two ideas.
Logical Truth and Falsity of Judgment

1. True judgment
A judgment is said to be true when it affirms what is, when
the judgment recognizes the real relationship between two
realities. In other words, true judgment is when the intellect
agrees with and perceives the actual relationship of two
realities in the external world.
2. False judgment
A judgment is said to be false when the mind deviates from
and does not reflect the actual relationship between two
realities. When the mind does not express and it not in
conjunction with the actual relationship of the external
realities, judgment is false.
Propositions

Learning Goals
At the end of this chapter , the student should be able to;
1. Define and Distinguish propositions from sentences;
2. Compare true and false propositions.
Nature of propositions
A proposition is a statement that can be either true or false.
It is a statement which either denies or affirms something.
Propositions are the sort of things that can be known ,
believed , and reasoned from and to. True propositions are
called facts or truths, while false propositions are called
errors of facts or untruths.
Characteristics of Propositions

1. All propositions are sentences (or statements), but not all

sentences (or statements) are propositions.
Since not all sentences contain judgment, not all sentences
are propositions. Questions, exclamations, request, and
commands, such as the following, are not propositions:
“what is the truth? “Help” “Goodbye ” “Please” “have
Mercy” and “May you find peace and happiness!” They are
not proposition since in them nothing is affirmed or denied.
2. A proposition express either truth or falsity. A proposition
is true when it corresponds with reality , and is false when it
does not.

Kinds of Propositions
a. Categorical
b .Hypothetical
Categorical Propositions
 Learning goals
At the end of this chapter , the student should be able to:

 1. Define categorical proposition and identify its parts;

 2. discuss the matter and form of a proposition
3. learn the distinctions among the four types of
categorical propositions
 4. Learn how to reduce a proposition to its logical form.
Nature of categorical propositions

A categorical proposition is a kind of proposition that express

an unconditional judgment. It is a proposition in which the
subject term is either affirmed or denied by the predicate
term.
Elements of Categorical Propositions

 Every proposition has matter and form. The subject and

the predicate are called the matter, the thought-content
of the proposition because they are the materials out of
which the proposition is made. The copula or bonding verb
“is” is called the form- the structure of a proposition
because it is the unifying principle that maintains the
structure of the proposition and imparts to its materials
the nature of a proposition. Hence, a valid proposition is
one which is true in its matter and correct in its form.
All propositions have quantifying particles or
quantifiers (all, some,no,etc.),except indefinite
propositions like “women are fickle,” men are
selfish, and mothers are lovable. The quantifiers
serve as the principal signs of the extension of the
subject term. The quantity of the subject term is
the same as the quantity of the proposition.
1. Quantifier (all): the quantifier determines the
extension of the subject. The quantifiers can be
“singular”, “particular”, or Universal”. It should be
noted, however, that from the point of view of
practical correct thinking, a singular is a universal.
In the given example, the quantifier “ALL” signifies
universality, thus, the extension of the subject of
the proposition is universal.
2. Subject Term (apples): The subject is that part of
a proposition about which something is either
affirmed or denied.
3. Copula (Are);The copula is the qualifier of the
proposition. Because of it, the proposition is either
affirmative or negative. Example of affirmative
copula are “is”,am, and are; negative copula , “is
not” , am not, and are not. The quality of the
proposition shall be represented by these symbols:
(+) for affirmative and (-) for negative.
A proposition that expresses an
affirmation and uses an affirmative
copula is called and “affirmative
proposition”, and one that expresses a
negation or denial and uses a negative
copula is a “ negative proposition”.
Nota Bene:
It is the copula, and the copula alone, that
determines whether a categorical proposition is
affirmative or negative. Since the subject and the
predicate have no bearing on the quality of the
position, propositions of the structures “A is non-B”
and “NON-A is non-B are, thus, affirmative
propositions.
In the first example, the negative element belongs
to the subject. The proposition does not express a
denial since the copula is affirmative. Thus, it is an
affirmative proposition.
 in the second example, the negative
element “non” is part of the predicate, and
the copula is affirmative.
4. Predicate term (fruits): the predicate term is that
which is affirmed or denied of a subject. Like the
subject term, it also has quantity, and its quantity
depends upon the quality of the proposition. The
quantity of the extension of the predicate shall be
represented by these symbols: “P” for particular
and “U” for universal.
Rules Governing the Quantity of the
Predicate:

a. All
affirmative proposition
always have particular (or
undistributed ) predicate
terms.
Exception are predicates that are (a)
essential definitions and (b) singulars.
These are universal or in full extension
b. All negative proposition always have
universal (or distributed ) predicate
terms.
It should also be noted at this time that there are
certain words or phrases customarily written or
spoken with the predicate that may effect the
quantity (subject) or quality (copula) of a
proposition. Such expressions generally do not
affect the quantity or extension of the subject term
in itself, but in relation to certain contingencies of
time, place, or circumstance. These expressions
shall be designated herein as circumstantial
quantifiers.
Circumstantial Quantifiers

Universal affirmative Always, everywhere, in every

Circumstance (A) instance, etc.
(Copula Affirmative) Men are always striving for status
Selfish is condemned everywhere
Universal Negative NEVER, nowhere, under no
circumstances, etc.
Circumstances (E) Men are never happy
Honesty is nowhere valued
Particular Sometimes,
occasionally, once,
Affirmatives somewhere, etc.
Circumstance (I) Aggression is something
necessary.
Integrity was once a
public virtue.
This is allowable under
certain condition.
 Not always, not everywhere,
Particular Negative sometimes not, etc.
Circumstance (O) People are not always willing to
sacrifice for an ideal.
He is sometimes not a very
understanding teacher.
The propositions A,E,I and O are arrived through
combined classifications of quantity and quality.

1.According to Quantity
a. A Universal proposition is a
proposition having a universal
quantifier.
b. A particular proposition is a
proposition having a particular
quantifier.
c. Particular affirmative proposition (I) is a
proposition having a particular quantifier and
an affirmative copula.
Examples:
Few students are in the scholarship program.
Some policeman are rich.
Certain women are cute.
Most tomatoes are big and red.
Also, indefinite affirmative proposition
Ex.
Men are selfless.(some)
Women are strong. (some, a large
minority , most)
d. Particular negative proposition (o) is a
proposition having a particular quantifier and a
negative copula.

Examples:
Some cute people are not actors.
Majority of the class are not men.
Not every politician is honest.
Not all ambitious individuals are selfish.
It should be noted that the “not” written with the
subject in the last two examples is to be understood
as part of the copula.
Also, indefinite negative propositions:
Politicians are not corrupt. (A Few)

Priests are not muscular. (Many)

Logical Form of Categorical Propositions.

Logical form refers to the basic

agreement of the elements or part of
a proposition. Hence, the logical form
of a proposition is subject-copula-
predicate or S-C-P.
Hypothetical propositions

Learning goals
1. Define hypothetical proposition;
2. Differentiate between hypothetical and
categorical proposition
3. Distinguish the different kinds of hypothetical
proposition
Nature of Hypothetical propositions.

A hypothetical proposition unites or separates two

enunciations by means of a non-verb copula. It is a
compound proposition that expresses the connection
of truth or falsehood between its components, it is
a proposition that states conditions, causation, or
opposition between two judgments, set ideas, or
statement.
Kinds of Hypothetical propositions

1. Conditional proposition- is an if-then statement

consisting of two parts.
The first part of the statement, which follows “if”
and precedes “then” is called the antecedent.
The second part of the statement, which follows
“then” is called the consequent.
(if, only if, in case, on the condition that, provided that, and
unless.)
 It is the distinctive nature of the conditional
proposition to assert nothing but the necessity of
logical connection between its two components-
the antecedent and the consequent. Thus , if the
consequent really follows from the antecedent,
irrespective of whether or not it is itself true, the
conditional proposition is true. If, on the other
hand, the consequent does not follow from the
antecedent even though both antecedent and the
consequent are true, the conditional proposition
is false.
IfI am a human being,
I am less than six feet
tall.
 Itis true that “I am a human being, and
also that “I am less than six feet tall, "but
by being less than six feet tall does not
follow necessarily from the fact that I am a
human being. The asserted logical
connection, therefore, is not obtained, and
the conditional proposition in question is
simply false.
Ifyou are dead, you
are not studying logic
now.
In this example, it may happen that both its
antecedent and consequent are false. It may
be false that “you are dead, and equally false
that you are not studying logic now.
nevertheless, this conditional proposition is
still perfectly true because of the logical
connection existing between its antecedent
and consequent. It follows logically that if
you were dead, you could not be studying
logic.
The antecedent and the consequent of
a conditional propostion may be
affirmative or negative. If the
antecedent is negative, “unless” is
frequently used instead of if…not..”
Unless he is careful, he will have a breakdown is
identical with If he is not careful, he will a
breakdown.

Unless you do penance, you will likewise perish.” is

the same as ‘If you do not do penance, you shall
likewise perish.
The circumstantial condition non-verb copulas such as
“whenever, wherever, when, and where,” are sometimes
used in place of “if”. Thus, the subsequent is essentially a
conditional proposition.
Ex.
Whenever politicians rule, farmers suffer.
Whenever I tell a joke, my students look uncomfortable.
Where wealth accumulates, men decay.
2. Biconditional Proposition
Express the idea that the presence of some property
is a necessary and sufficient condition for the
presence of some other property. This known as the
if and only if statement because of its usual
structure: A if and only if B.
Ex.
You will go if and only if I say so.
We will attend if and only if we are invited.
Padpad will win just in case Argie does.
3. Disjunctive proposition

 Isa combining statement that uses the

connective “or” to join component clauses
called disjuncts or alternatives, of which at
least one must be true. This is also known
as the either-or statement because of its
usual structur: Either A or B is C. The
disjunctive proposition has two types
(complete and incomplete disjunctive).
a. Complete Disjunctive proposition

A disjunction is complete when only one of

its disjunctive, not both, can be true.
Example:
Dinner include soup or salad.

The passenger in the ill-fated plane is either

dead or alive.
b. Incomplete Disjunctive proposition-a disjunction
is incomplete when both of its disjuncts may be true.

Example:
All those eligible for welfare are
unemployed or infirm.

He is either an employee or a student.

4. Conjunctive proposition
 Is a combination statement consisting of two coordinate
clauses joined by and; both clauses must be true.
 Conjunctive propositions are also introduced by
conjunctions like “but”,”yet”, as well as, however,
though, although, whereas, while, moreover,
nevertheless, and now.
 Example:
 The harvest is great but the laborers are few.
 Many are called but few are chosen.
 He coaches as well as plays in the finals.