UNIT 3

COMPUTER GRAPHICS
 SYLLABUS

 Cohen Sutherland Clipping Algorithm,

 Shading and its types
 Colouring and its types
 Introduction to Data exchange standards, Data exchange
standards: IGES, STEP, DXF and CALS and GKS,
 Animation Types, Animation Techniques,
 Simulation Techniques
Point Clipping

Line Clipping
 Cohen-Sutherland line clipping
Algorithm:-

Step 1: Read two end points of the line say p1(x1,y1) and p2(x2,y2).

P1(x1,y1) P2(x2,y2)

Step 2: Read two corner (left-bottom and right-top) of the window, say
(Xwmin,YWmin) and (Xwmax,YWmax). (Xwmax,Ywmax)

(Xwmin,Ywmin)

Step 3: Assign the region code for two end points p1 and p2 are follows:

Bit4 Bit3 Bit2 Bit1

Region code calculation for point (x,y):-

Sign bit for Bit1 is x-xwmin, sign bit for Bit2 xwmax-x, sign bit for Bit3 for y-
ywmin, sign bit for Bit4 ywmax-y.
 Then if sign bit is negative then the corresponding bit is
assigned to be 1. If it is positive then the corresponding bit
is assigned to be 0.

Step 4: Check for visibility of P1P2:-

a)If the both region code for p1 and p2 is 0000. Then the line completely visible, then
exit.
b) Else, ANDing the region code for p1 and p2, if the result is not 0000. Then the line
is
completely invisible. Then exit.
c)If the region code for two end points do not satisfy the above two condition, then the
line is partially visible.
Step 5: Determine the intersection point:-
a)If the line partially visible and region code for both p1 and p2 are not 0000.
Then find p1’ and p2’. The intersection point with the boundaries edge of the clipping
window.
 p2
p1 P1’ P2’

b) If any one of the point p1 or p2 is 0000(region code) and other root 0000. Then
find the intersection point p1’ or p2’ with the boundary edge of the clipping
window.

p1 P2’ p2

Step 6: Reject the line outside of the clipping window and draw the remaining line
segment.

Step 7: Stop.
 COLOURING

Objective:
 Facilitate creating geometry.
 Display images.
Basics:
 Assign different colors for wireframe, surface or solid entities.
 Main ingredient of Shading – Color & Texture.
 Achromatic colors – Black (0), white (1) & various levels of gray
– Only attribute is intensity
 Chromatic colors – Multicolor
 COLOR MODELS
 Color Model
 A mathematical system for representing color
 The human eye combines 3 primary colors (using the 3
different types of cones) to discern all possible colors.
 Colors are just different light frequencies
 red – 700nm wavelength
 green – 546.1 nm wavelength
 blue – 435.8 nm wavelength
 Higher frequencies are cooler colors
8
Color Models
 Primary Colors
 Primary colors of light are additive
 Primary colors are red, green, and blue
 Combining red + green + blue yields white

 Primary colors of pigment are subtractive

 Primary colors are cyan, magenta, and yellow
 Combining cyan + magenta + yellow yields black

10
INTRODUCTION TO COLOR MODELLING
CMY YIQ HSL HSV

RGB

Gamma
correction

Color lookup
table values
 RGB Color model

Source: www.mitsubishi.com

Active displays, such as computer monitors and television sets, emit combinations of red, green and
blue light. This is an additive color model
12
 CMY Color model

Source: www.hp.com

Passive displays, such as color inkjet printers, absorb light instead of emitting it. Combinations of
cyan, magenta and yellow inks are used. This is a subtractive color model.
13
RGB Vs CMY
RGB color cube

RGB 24-bit color cube

 RGB Example

Original Red Band Green Band Blue Band

16
RGB and CMY Color Cubes

17
RGB AND CMY COLOR CUBES
 Light Intensity

• Note that intensity is a weighted function of the r, g, b

values.
• The human eye doesn’t weight each component
identically!
• intensity = 0.299*Red + 0.587*Green +
0.144*Blue
• Assume three light sources have the same actual
intensity but are colored red, green, and blue.
• The green light will appear brightest followed by red
and blue 19
YIQ MODEL
 YIQ(color modelling)
YIQ is the color space used by the NTSC color TV system, employed mainly in
North and Central America, and Japan.
• The Y component represents the luma information and is the only component
used by black-and-white television receivers. I and Q represent the chrominance
information.
In YUV, the U and V components can be thought of as X and Y coordinates within
the color space.
• I and Q can be thought of as a second pair of axes on the same graph, rotated
33°; therefore IQ and UV represent different coordinate systems on the same
plane.
 YIQ(color modelling)
• Color images are encoded as triplets of values.

• RGB is an additive color model that is used for light-emitting devices, e.g., CRT
displays.
• CMY is a subtractive model that is used often for printers.
• Two common color models in imaging are RGB and CMY, two common color
models in video are YUV and YIQ.
• YUV uses properties of the human eye to prioritize information. Y is the black
and white (luminance) image, U and V are the color difference (chrominance)
images.
• YIQ uses similar idea.
• Besides the hardware-oriented color models (i.e., RGB, CMY, YUV, YIQ), HSB
(Hue, Saturation, and Brightness) and HLS (Hue, Lightness, and Saturation)
are also commonly used.
Yiq colour descripton.
Example for yiq photo which is used in
televisions
HSV MODEL
• HSV is another way to describe color with 3 parameters. RGB is the way computer screens
work, but not very intuitive. HSV is more intuitive, but you need to convert it to RGB before
you can draw a pixel with it. The nicest application of this color model is that you can easily
create rainbow gradients or change the color, lightness or saturation of an image with this
color model.
•
HSV color obviously has the parameters H, S and V, or Hue, Saturation and Lightness Value.

Hue indicates the color sensation of the light, in other words if the color is red, yellow, green,
cyan, blue, magenta, ... This representation looks almost the same as the visible spectrum of
light, except on the right is now the color magenta (the combination of red and blue), instead
of violet (light with a frequency higher than blue):

• Hue works circular, so it can be represented on a circle instead. A hue of 360° looks the same
again as a hue of 0°.
Saturation indicates the degree to which the hue differs from a neutral gray.
The values run from 0%, which is no color, to 100%, which is the fullest
saturation of a given hue at a given percentage of illumination. The more the
spectrum of the light is concentrated around one wavelength, the more
saturated the color will be.
Lightness indicates the illumination of the color, at 0% the color is completely
black, at 50% the color is pure, and at 100% it becomes white. In HSL color, a
color with maximum lightness (L=255) is always white, no matter what the hue
or saturation components are. Lightness is defined as (maxColor+minColor)/2
where maxColoris the R, G or B component with the maximum value, and
minColor the one with the minimum value
HSL MODEL
HSL is another way to describe color with 3 parameters. RGB is the way computer screens work,
but not very intuitive. HSL is more intuitive, but you need to convert it to RGB before you can draw
a pixel with it. The nicest application of this color model is that you can easily create rainbow
gradients or change the color, lightness or saturation of an image with this color model.

HSL color obviously has the parameters H, S and L, or Hue, Saturation and Lightness.

Hue indicates the color sensation of the light, in other words if the color is red, yellow, green, cyan,
blue, magenta, ... This representation looks almost the same as the visible spectrum of light, except
on the right is now the color magenta (the combination of red and blue), instead of violet (light with
a frequency higher than blue):

Hue works circular, so it can be represented on a circle instead. A hue of 360° looks the same again
as a hue of 0°.
Hue colour patterns
Graph showing relation between
(saturation,lightness,hue)
 SHADING
INTRODUCTION:
 Shading is referred to as the implementation of the illumination
model at the pixel points or polygon surfaces of the graphics objects.
 Shading model is used to compute the intensities and colors to
display the surface.
 The shading model has two primary ingredients:
i) Properties of the surface
ii) Properties of the illumination falling on it.
 Shaded color images convey shape information that cannot be
represented in line drawings.
 SHADING………. contd
 Shaded images can also convey features other than shape such as
surface finish or material type.
 Defects – Noise, the spot size of deflection beam and fidelity of the
display.
 Noise occurs in delivery of intensity information from bit map of the
display to its screen or in the deflection system that steers the beam
over the pixel array.
 Smaller spot size clear array of dots, Larger spot size affects the
sharpness of image.
 Fidelity of display is a measure of how the light energy calculated by a
shading model is reproduced on the screen.
 SHADING………. contd
 The principal surface property is its reflectance, which determines
how much of the incident light is reflected.
 If a surface has different reflectance for the light of different
wavelengths, it will appear to be colored.
 An object illumination is also significant in computing intensity.
 The scene may have to save illumination that is uniform from all
direction, called diffuse illumination.
 Shading models determine the shade of a point on the surface of an
object in terms of a number of attributes.
 The shading Mode can be decomposed into three parts, a contribution
from diffuse illumination, the contribution for one or more specific
light sources and a transparency effect.
 SHADING………. contd
 Each of these effects contributes to shading term E which is summed
to find the total energy coming from a point on an object.
 This is the energy a display should generate to present a realistic
image of the object.
 The energy comes not from a point on the surface but a small area
around the point.
 SHADING………. contd
 The simplest form of shading considers only diffuse illumination:
Epd=Rp Id

where Epd is the energy coming from point P due to diffuse

illumination.
Id is the diffuse illumination falling on the entire scene

Rp is the reflectance coefficient at P which ranges from shading

contribution from specific light sources will cause the shade of a surface
to vary as to its orientation concerning the light sources changes and
will also include specular reflection effects.
 In the above figure, a point P on a surface, with light arriving at an
angle of incidence i, the angle between the surface normal N p and a
ray to the light source.
 SHADING………. contd
 If the energy Ips arriving from the light source is reflected uniformly in
all directions, called diffuse reflection, we have
Eps = (Rp cos i)Ips
 This equation shows the reduction in the intensity of a surface as it's
tipped obliquely to the light source.
 If the angle of incidence i exceeds 90°, the surface is hidden from the
light source and we must set Eps to zero.
 Basic shading Model Ip = Id + Is + Ib
 Resulting Intensity at a point, Intensity due to diffuse reflection,
specular reflection & ambient light
 SHADING………. contd
Constant Intensity Shading
 A fast and straightforward method for rendering an object with
polygon surfaces is constant intensity shading, also called Flat
Shading.
 In this method, a single intensity is calculated for each polygon.
 All points over the surface of the polygon are then displayed with the
same intensity value.
 Constant Shading can be useful for quickly displaying the general
appearances of the curved surface as shown in figure.
▪ In general, flat shading of polygon facets provides an accurate
rendering for an object if all of the following assumptions are valid:-
The object is a polyhedron and is not an approximation of an object
with a curved surface.
 SHADING………. contd
Constant Intensity Shading
 All light sources illuminating the objects are
sufficiently far from the surface so that N*L and
the attenuation function are constant over the
surface (where N is the unit normal to a surface
and L is the unit direction vector to the point
light source from a position on the surface).
 The viewing position is sufficiently far from the
surface so that V*R is constant over the surface
(where V is the unit vector pointer to the viewer
from the surface position and R represent a unit
vector in the direction of ideal specular
reflection).
 SHADING………. contd
GOURAUD SHADING
 This Intensity-Interpolation scheme or First-derivative shading,
developed by Gouraud and usually referred to as Gouraud Shading,
renders a polygon surface by linear interpolating intensity value across
the surface.
 Intensity values for each polygon are coordinate with the value of
adjacent polygons along the common edges, thus eliminating the
intensity discontinuities that can occur in flat shading.
 Each polygon surface is rendered with Gouraud Shading by performing
the following calculations:
 Determining the average unit normal vector at each polygon vertex.
 SHADING………. contd
GOURAUD SHADING
 Apply an illumination model to each vertex to determine the vertex
intensity.
 Linear interpolate the vertex intensities over the surface of the
polygon.
 At each polygon vertex, we obtain a normal vector by averaging the
surface normals of all polygons staring that vertex as shown in figure.
 SHADING………. contd
GOURAUD SHADING
 Thus, for any vertex position V, we acquire the unit vertex normal with
the calculation

 Once we have the vertex normals, we can determine the intensity at

the vertices from a lighting model.
 Following figures demonstrate the next step: Interpolating intensities
along the polygon edges. For each scan line, the intensities at the
intersection of the scan line with a polygon edge are linearly
interpolated from the intensities at the edge endpoints.
 SHADING………. contd
GOURAUD SHADING
 For example: In figure, the polygon edge with endpoint vertices at
position 1 and 2 is intersected by the scanline at point 4.
 A fast method for obtaining the intensities at point 4 is to interpolate
between intensities I1 and I2 using only the vertical displacement of
the scan line.
 SHADING………. contd
GOURAUD SHADING

 Similarly, the intensity at the right intersection of this scan line (point
5) is interpolated from the intensity values at vertices 2 and 3.
 Once these bounding intensities are established for a scan line, an
interior point (such as point P in the previous fig) is interpolated from
the bounding intensities at point 4 and 5 as
 SHADING………. contd
GOURAUD SHADING
 Incremental calculations are used to obtain successive edge intensity
values between scan lines and to obtain successive intensities along a
scan line as shown in fig:
 SHADING………. contd
GOURAUD SHADING
 If the intensity at edge position (x, y) is interpolated as

 Then we can obtain the intensity along this edge for the next scan
line, Y-1 as

 Similar calculations are used to obtain intensities at successive

horizontal pixel positions along each scan line.
 When surfaces are to be rendered in color, the intensities of each color
component is calculated at the vertices.
 SHADING………. contd
GOURAUD SHADING
 Gouraud Shading can be connected with a hidden-surface algorithm to
fill in the visible polygons along each scan-line.
 Gouraud Shading discards the intensity discontinuities associated with
the constant-shading model, but it has some other deficiencies.
 Highlights on the surface are sometimes displayed with anomalous
shapes, and the linear intensity interpolation can cause bright or dark
intensity streaks, called Match bands, to appear on the surface.
 These effects can be decreased by dividing the surface into a higher
number of polygon faces or by using other methods, such as Phong
shading, that requires more calculations.
 SHADING………. contd
PHONG SHADING
 A more accurate method for rendering a polygon surface is to
interpolate the normal vector and then apply the illumination model to
each surface point.
 This method developed by Phong Bui Tuong is called Phong Shading or
normal vector Interpolation Shading.
 It displays more realistic highlights on a surface and greatly reduces
the Match-band effect.
 A polygon surface is rendered using Phong shading by carrying out the
following steps:
 Determine the average unit normal vector at each polygon vertex.
 SHADING………. contd
PHONG SHADING
 Linearly & interpolate the vertex normals over the surface of the
polygon.
 Apply an illumination model along each scan line to calculate
projected pixel intensities for the surface points.
 Interpolation of the surface normal along a polynomial edge between
two vertices as shown in figure.
 SHADING………. contd
PHONG SHADING

 Incremental methods are used to evaluate normals between scan lines

and along each scan line.
 At each pixel position along a scan line, the illumination model is
applied to determine the surface intensity at that point.
 Intensity calculations using an approximated normal vector at each
point along the scan line produce more accurate results than the direct
interpolation of intensities, as in Gouraud Shading.
 The trade-off, however, is that Phong shading requires considerably
more calculations.
 Typical Situation

Major supplier Partner uses

uses I-DEAS Unigraphics

Major company
uses CATIA

Small supplier
Small supplier uses Solid Edge
uses AutoCAD
 The Problem

• Every CAD system uses its own proprietary data format

• Design data must be converted from one format to the
other
Direct Translation between CAD
Systems

• Need a translator from

I-DEAS Unigraphics every CAD package to
every other
• For 4 CAD packages,
need 6 translators
• For 6 CAD packages,
need 16 translators!

CATIA Pro/Engineer
 Data Exchange Standards

• To address the problem, many standards for CAD data

exchange have been developed
• CAD systems can import and export to many of these
standard formats
 Evolution of Data Standards

Interfaces Standardization Organization

CAD/CAD CAD/CAM National & European International ISO

IGES
PDES ANSI (USA) Product Data Structure
PDDI

SET AFNOR (France)

VDA/FS DIN (Germany) STEP

CAD*I ESPRIT (EEC) ( A full data model)

CIM-OSA ESPRIT (EEC)

EDIF USA Electronics Industry

 Current Situation

• Translation using IGES is unreliable

• geometry is corrupted
• much cleanup required after translation

• Translation using STEP (Standard for the Exchange of

Product Data) is not widespread
• STEP translators only recently available

• Existing translators lose information

• parametrics and constraints
• features and history trees
 Short-term Solutions

• To avoid data translation problems, many companies

have standardized on a single CAD system
• Ford
• all suppliers must use I-DEAS

• Chrysler
• all suppliers must use CATIA

• General Motors
• all suppliers must use Unigraphics
 A Better Solution

• A better solution is development of reliable data

exchange standards, using a neutral interface

CAD 1 CAD 2 CAE 1 CAE 2

Neutral Interface

CAPP PP&C CAM CAQ

 Requirements of an Interface

• The interface must be capable of handling all

manufacturing data
• There should be no information loss (maintain the
semantics during conversion)
• The system must be efficient to be capable of handling
the realtime requirements of manufacturing
• The system should be open-ended to permit extensions
or contractions
 Requirements Continued

• The system should be adaptable to other standards

• The system must be independent of the computer
and architecture used
• It must be possible to form application-oriented
subsets of the standard to reduce costs
• The interface must be upward and downward
compatible in a hierarchical control structure.
• Test procedures must be provided to verify
effectivety.
Initial Graphics Exchange Specification
(IGES)

• Formatted ASCII file format

• Supports many 2D and 3D CAD entities
• Has gone through several versions since 1980
• Widely supported
 IGES File Structure
Flag
▪ Flag section (optional)
section
Start
▪ Start section
section
– Human readable introduction to the file
– set up manually by the person
Global
▪ Global section
Section
– It has 24 fields and has parameters necessary to translate the file.
– Information describing pre-processor and information needed by
post processor to interpret the file. It contains name of IGES file,
vendor and software version of source system, Date and time,
model space scale, units, min resolution and max coordinate
values. etc.,.
Directory Entry Section (DE)
▪ Directory Entry Section (DE)
– It has line font, layer number, transformation matrix, line weight
and colour
▪ Parameter Data
Parameter Section
Data (PD) (PD)
section
– Contains actual data defining each entity listed in DE
section.
– Ex: coordinate values, spline data points., so on.
Terminate Section

▪
– Contains a single record which specifies the number of
records in each of the four preceding section for
checking purpose.
 Problems with IGES

• Many incompatible “flavours”

• Unreliable translation, particularly for complex
geometry
• No formal information modelling basis
• Insufficient support for conformance testing
 STEP
INTRODUCTION:
 STandard for Exchange of Product data is an exchange for product data in
support of Industrial automation.

 ISO standard.

 Encompasses data relevant to the entire life cycle of a product such as

design, manufacturing, quality assurance, testing and support.

 Absorbed PDES (Product Data Exchange Standard – ANSI Standard).

 Eliminates human presence.

 Fully interpretable by computer. Ex: – Tolerance information carried in the

form is interpreted directly by computer and no human intervention required.
 STEP.......contd
INTRODUCTION:
 Obviates engineering drawing and other paper documents as necessary
means of passing information between different product phases.
 Central unit of data exchange is the application which contains various types
of entities.
 Maintains all the meaningful associativities and relationships between the
application entities.
 Represents all product information in a common data format.
 Geometry, analysis, manufacturing, implementation and testing procedures.
 A Common structure operates as a template, for sharing data among multiple
users, across all functional areas.
 STEP.......contd
ARCHITECTURE:
 Product data exchanged according to “discipline models” or “schemas”.
 Receiver and sender must be aware of the meaning of the discipline model to
recover correct meaning of data in the exchange.
 Discipline models are standardized and defined by STEP. It is interpreted and
used by another computer.
 Concept of discipline models makes STEP flexible to accommodate any future
models and applications areas.
 Uses three layer architecture – Application layer, Logical layer and Physical
layer.
 Application layer is the interface between the user and STEP.
 Application layer contains all the descriptions and information of various
application areas.
 STEP.......contd
ARCHITECTURE:
 Logical layer provides a consistent, computer-independent description of the
data constructs that contain the information to be exchanged.
 Physical layer deals with the data structures and data format for the
exchange file itself.
 Establishes and maintain efficiency in the file size and processing time.
Mechanica Electrical AEC Applicatio
Application l Product Product Product nN
Layer (Discipline (Discipline (Discipline (Discipline
1) 2) 3) N)

Logical Application –
Generic
Layer specific
entities
entities

Physical
File format and data
Layer
structure
 STEP.......contd
IMPLEMENTATION:
 STEP is built on data exchange language called EXPRESS (describes a model
and the file format that stores it)
 EXPRESS stores both the model data and semantics.
 Basic unit is the Entity – collection of data, constraints and operations.
 The operations work on data. A set of entities make up a model.
 The relationship between model entities are carried over and maintained by
STEP, from the native CAD database of the model.
 EXPRESS follows Object Oriented paradigm.
 It first defines an object schema and then defines instances of such object.
 Example: Circle schema as its centre and radius. The centre is a point and
the radius is real number. Point schema defined as x, y and z coordinates.
 STEP.......contd
IMPLEMENTATION:
 Application Protocols built into a common data model.
 APs contains not only the definitions of typical geometry and drafting
elements, but also of data types and processes for specific industries such as
aerospace, shipbuilding, electronics and maintenance.
 Ex: AP203 – solid models, AP210 – electronics
 The flexibility and growing availability of commercial Web/XML tools with
STEP greatly increases the sharing of information across discipline, with
universal access.
 XML (eXtensible Markup Language) is a standard format for data
representation. It complements XHTML which is a standard for data
presentation.
 XML defines data schema in a DTD (document type definition) file.
 DXF
 Data eXchange Format is a de facto standard and is an AutoCAD format,
which enables data interoperability.
 AutoCAD publishes, supports and maintains it.
 Translates drawing files and cannot translate part files.
 Two formats: ASCII and Binary.

FILE STRUCTURE
 Header section – System settings (dimensions style and layers), General
information about the drawing. Each parameter has a variable name and an
associated value.
 Classes section – Holds the information for application-defined classes whose
instances appear in the BLOCKS, ENTITIES, and OBJECTS sections of the
database. Generally does not provide sufficient information to allow
interoperability with other programs.
 DXF……… contd
 Tables section – Line styles and user-defined coordinate systems; Application
ID (APPID) table, Block Record (BLOCK_RECORD) table, Dimension Style
(DIMSTYLE) table, Layer (LAYER) table, Linetype (LTYPE) table, Text style
(STYLE) table, User Coordinate System (UCS) table, View (VIEW) table,
Viewport configuration (VPORT) table
 Blocks section – Drawing blocks (instances); This section contains Block
Definition entities describing the entities comprising each Block in the
drawing.
 Entities section – Entity definition and data; This section contains the drawing
entities, including any Block References.
 Objects section - Contains the data that apply to nongraphical objects, used
by AutoLISP, and ObjectARX applications.
 Thumbnailimage section - Contains the preview image for the DXF file.
 Other Standards

• Standards for technical documents

• Standards for images
• Internet and Web standards
 Continuous Acquisition and Life-cycle
Support (CALS)

• Developed by US Department of Defense

• Prescribes formats for storage and exchange of
technical data
• Technical publications an important focus
 Important CALS Standards

• Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML)

• document description language
• separates content from structure (formatting)
• uses “tags” to define headings, sections, chapters,
etc.
• HTML is based on SGML
• Computer Graphics Metafile (CGM)
• vector file format for illustrations and drawings
• IGES
• also used for illustrations
 Common Formats for Bitmap Images

• Standards
• Joint Photographic Expert Group (JPEG)

• Proprietary
• Graphics Interchange Format (GIF)
• Windows bitmap format (BMP)
• Zsoft file format (PCX)
• Tagged Image File Format (TIFF/TIF)
• Targa file format (TGA)
 Web and Internet Standards

• Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)

• used to describe web pages
• based on SGML

• Virtual Reality Modelling Language (VRML)

• standard for description of 3D interactive environments and
worlds
• downloaded and displayed in a web browser
• well suited to sharing of CAD data
 Other CAD File Formats

• DXF
• de facto standard published by AutoDesk (AutoCAD)

• STL
• 3D file format used as input for Stereolithography

• SAT
• solid model file format used by ACIS-based CAD systems
 ANIMATION

• ANIMATION TECHNIQUES
• ANIMATION TYPES
• SIMULATION TECHNIQUES
 ANIMATION
▪ Animation is the rapid display of a sequence of images of artwork or model
positions or frames to create an illusion of movement.
▪ Animation starts with independent pictures and puts them together to form the
illusion of continuous motion.
(or)
▪ It is the process of making the illusion of motion and change utilizing the rapid
display of a sequence of static images that minimally differ from each other.
▪ A simulation of movement created by displaying a series of pictures, or frames.
▪ These pictures can be hand drawn, computer generated, or pictures of 3D
objects.
Types of Animation
Bitmap animation
• In bitmap animation, the frame bitmaps (every pixel of each
frame) are first loaded into the system memory and are then
rapidly displayed on the screen from the memory.
• Bitmap animation takes huge amount of memory since all pixel
information are to be first loaded into memory.
Vector animation
• In vector animation, the images for each frame are calculated and
generated by the computer.
• Vector animation takes up lesser memory space, but more time is
generally needed to create the images than to load them from
memory or disk.
• However, when delivering on the net where file size is a major
concern, vector animation is a better choice for simple animation.
ANIMATION SOFTWARES
TECHNIQUES OF ANIMATION
 HAND DRAWN ANIMATION
▪ Traditional Animation:
▪ This is one of the oldest forms of animation in film.
▪ It’s sometimes called cel animation.
▪ Traditional animation is an animation technique where each frame is drawn
by hand.
▪ As mentioned above, in traditional animation, objects are drawn on celluloid
transparent paper.
▪ In order to create the animated sequence, the animator must draw every
frame.
▪ It’s the same mechanism as a flipbook, just on a grander scale.
▪ The technique was the dominant form of animation in cinema until the rise of
computer animation.
 3-D ANIMATION
▪ Involves 3 steps:
– Modeling
– Animation
– Rendering

▪ Modeling:
▪ 3D modeling describes the shape of an object
▪ process of creating 3-D objects and scenes.
▪ Can involve drawing various views of an object (top, side, cross-section)
by setting points on a grid.
▪ The two most common sources of 3D models are those created by
engineer using 3D modeling tool, and those scanned into a computer
from real-world objects.
• Animation:
• Defining the object's motion and how the lighting and views change during the
animation.
• Shadow, shading, ray tracing
• Rendering:
• Process of converting models and image using special computer programs.
• Give the final appearance to the models
• Example:
• colors
• surface textures
• degrees of transparency
 MOTION GRAPHICS
▪ Motion Graphics are pieces are digital graphics that create the
illusion of motion usually for ads, title sequences in films, but
ultimately exist to communicate something to the viewer.
▪ They’re often combined with sound for multimedia projects.
▪ They’re a type of animation used mostly in business, usually with
text as a main player.
(or)
▪ Motion graphics are simply flat-based images or 3D objects that are
given the illusion of motion, accompanied with music or sound
effects.
 STOP MOTION
• Stop Motion is done by taking a photo of an object, and then moving it just a little bit
and taking another photo.
• The process is repeated and when the photos are played back one after another
they give the illusion of movement.
• This is similar to traditional animation but it uses real life materials instead of
drawings.
▪ But the basic mechanics are similar to the traditional style like a flipbook.
▪ However, instead of drawings, stop motion adjusts physical objects in each frame. If
moved in small increments, captured one frame at a time, the illusion of motion is
produced.
▪ Stop Motion encompasses
– Claymation
– Pixelation
– object-motion
– cutout animation, and more.
 Animation -12 Principals
• Squash and Stretch
• Timing and Motion
• Anticipation
• Staging
• Follow Through and Overlapping Action
• Straight Ahead Action and Pose-To-Pose Action
• Slow In and Out
• Arcs
• Exaggeration
• Secondary Action
• Appeal
• Strong Drawing or Solid Drawing
 ANIMATION SPECIAL EFFECTS

▪ Morphing:
▪ Transforms one image into another through a seamless
transition .
▪ Selects sets of corresponding points on each of the
images e.g. the eyes, lips, ears and outline of the head.
▪ Based on these points, pixels are rearranged to
transition the original image into the second via a series
of intervening images.
Warping:
allows manipulation of a single image
e.g. can stretch facial feature to change a
frown into a smile
Kinematics – Simulation on Human Motion
Study of movement & motion of structures that have joints. (example: a walking man,
dinosaur)
Complex process; calculate the position, rotation, velocity of joints.
Inverse Kinematics:
• Process that links object (eg: hands to arm) to define relationship and limit
• Kinematic constraints-
• example: elbow cannot bend backwards.
• Kinematic chain
• example: if upper arm moves, lower arm and hand must move with it
• Useful for animating jointed structures, especially limbs of human or animal figures
 SIMULATION

▪ Simulation is the process of designing a model of a real system and

conducting experiments with this model for the purpose of
understanding the behavior for the operation of the system.
▪ A simulation model is a mathematical model that calculates the impact
of uncertain inputs and decisions we make on outcomes that we care
about, such as profit and loss, investment returns, etc.
▪ A simulation model will include: Model inputs that are uncertain
numbers/ uncertain variables
▪ Intermediate calculations as required
▪ Model outputs that depend on the inputs -- These are uncertain functions
• Computer simulation modeling is a discipline gaining popularity in both
government and industry.
• Computer simulation modeling can assist in the design, creation, and
evaluation of complex systems.
• Designers, program managers, analysts, and engineers use computer
simulation modeling to understand and evaluate ‘what if’ case scenarios.
• It can model a real or proposed system using computer software and is
useful when changes to the actual system are difficult to implement,
involve high costs, or are impractical.
• Some examples of computer simulation modeling familiar to most of us
include: weather forecasting, flight simulators used for training pilots, and
car crash modeling.
• Benefits:
• Gain greater understanding of a process.
• Identify problem areas or bottlenecks in processes.
• Evaluate effect of systems or process changes such as demand,
resources, supply, and constraints,
• Identify actions needed upstream or downstream relative to a given
operation, organization, or activity to either improve or mitigate
• Types of Simulation Models:
• Discrete Models
• Changes to the system occur at specific times
• Division of Property Management trouble calls
• Acquisition or construction business processes
• A manufacturing system with parts entering and leaving at
specific times
• Continuous Models
• The state of the system changes continuously over time
• A reservoir as water flows in and out
• Chilled water or steam distribution
• Mixed Models
• Contains both discrete and continuous elements
• A refinery with continuously changing pressure inside vessels
and discreetly occurring shutdowns
• Chilled water distribution including plant shutdowns