Introduction

What is communication ?
Significance of guided and unguided
communication
Wireless / Mobile Communication
Radio Propagation Effects
Propagation Scenario


Mobile Radio Propagation
Large Scale Propagation Effects
Distance dependent loss
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering
Useful in estimating radio coverage
Small Scale Propagation Effects
Rapid fluctuations of received signal strength over
short durations or short distances
Multipath propagation time dispersive
Mobility frequency dispersive
Large-scale /small-scale
propagation
Propagation phenomena
50-100
1 2 Km
Free space propagation
model - LOS
P
r
(d) = P
t
G
t
G
r

2

/ (4td)
2
L P
r
(d
0
)(d
0
/d)
2

Assumes far-field (Fraunhofer region)
Far field distance d
f
>> D and d
f
>> , where
D is the largest linear dimension of antenna
is the carrier wavelength
d
f
= 2D
2
/
d
o
> d
f
Fraunhofer region/far field (1m -1 km)
No interference, no obstructions
Effective isotropic radiated power EIRP = P
t
G
t
Effective radiated power ERP
Antenna gains dBi, dBd
Path loss PL(dB) = 10log (P
t
/P
r
)
Radio Propagation Mechanisms
Reflection
Propagating EM wave impinges on an object which is large as
compared to its wavelength
- e.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.
Conductors & Dielectric materials (refraction)
Diffraction
Radio path between transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a
surface with sharp irregular edges
Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS (line of sight)
does not exist
Fresnel zones
Scattering
Objects smaller than the wavelength of the propagating wave
- e.g. foliage, street signs, lamp posts
Clutter is small relative to wavelength
Reflection
Perfect conductors reflect with no attenuation
Light on the mirror
Dielectrics reflect a fraction of incident energy
Grazing angles reflect max*
Steep angles transmit max*
Light on the water
Reflection induces 180 phase shift
Why? See yourself in the mirror
Reflected field intensity
Fresnel reflection coefficient I
Brewster angle I = 0 ?


u
u
r

u
t

Classical 2-ray Ground reflection
model
2-Ray Model
For d > d
o
, the free space propagating field

E(d,t) = (E
o
d
o
/d) cos { e
c
(t d/c)}

E
LOS
(d,t) = (E
o
d
o
/d) cos { e
c
(t d/c)}

E
g
(d,t) = I (E
o
d
o
/d) cos { e
c
(t d/c)}

u
i
= u
o
E
g
= I E
i
; E
t
= (1+I) E
i

2-Ray Model

For small grazing angles, assuming perfect
horizontal E-field polarization and ground
reflection , I
|
=-1, E
t
= 0

|E
TOT
| = |E
LOS
+ E
g
|

E
TOT
(d,t) = (E
o
d
o
/d) cos { e
c
(t d/c)}
+(-1)(E
o
d
o
/d) cos { e
c
(t d/c)}
Method of images
2-Ray model

Using method of images,

Path difference
A = d d = {(h
t
+h
r
)
2
+d
2
}
1/2
{(h
t
-h
r
)
2
+d
2
}
1/2


If d >> (h
t
+h
r
) ; using Taylor series expansion,
A = d d ~ 2h
t
h
r
/d

u
A
= 2 tA/ = A e
c
/ c and t
d
= A/ c = u
A
/2 tf
c


2-Ray model
At time t = d/c ;

E
TOT
(d, t) = (E
o
d
o
/d) cos { e
c
((d d)/c)} - (E
o
d
o
/d) cos0

= (E
o
d
o
/d) Z u
A
- (E
o
d
o
/d) ~ (E
o
d
o
/d) [ Z u
A
- 1]

|E
TOT
(d) |

= { (E
o
d
o
/d)
2
cos (u
A
- 1)
2
+ (E
o
d
o
/d)
2
sin (u
A
)
2
}


2-Ray model
|E
TOT
(d) |= { (E
o
d
o
/d)
2
cos (u
A
- 1)
2
+ (E
o
d
o
/d)
2
sin (u
A
)
2
}



|E
TOT
(d) |= (E
o
d
o
/d) (2-2cos u
A
)


= (2E
o
d
o
/d) sin( u
A
/2)

sin( u
A
/2) ~ ( u
A
/2) < 0.3 rad d > ~20 h
t
h
r
/

E
TOT
(d)

~ (2E
o
d
o
/d) (2 t h
t
h
r
/ d) ~ k / d
2
V/m

P
r
= P
t
G
t
G
r
(h
t
h
r
)
2
/ d
4


PL(dB) = 40 log d ( 10logG
t
+ 10logG
r
+ 20logh
t
+ 20logh
r
)

2-Ray model Summary
For small T-R separation

E
TOT
(d,t) = (E
o
d
o
/d) cos { e
c
(t d/c)}
+(-1)(E
o
d
o
/d) cos { e
c
(t d/c)}

For large T-R separation

E
TOT
(d)

~ (2E
o
d
o
/d) (2 t h
t
h
r
/ d)
2-Ray model Summary
For large T-R separation,

E
TOT
(d)

~ k / d
2
V/m

The free space power is related to square of the electric field
and hence,

P
r
= P
t
G
t
G
r
(h
t
h
r
)
2
/ d
4


Path Loss in dB
PL(dB) = 40 log d ( 10logG
t
+ 10logG
r
+ 20logh
t
+ 20logh
r
)
Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when waves hit the edge of an obstacle
Secondary waves propagate into the shadowed region
Water wave example
Diffraction is caused by the propagation of secondary
wavelets into a shadowed region.
Excess path length results in a phase shift
The field strength of a diffracted wave in the shadowed
region is the vector sum of the electric field components of
all the secondary wavelets in the space around the obstacle.
Huygens principle: all points on a wavefront can be
considered as point sources for the production of secondary
wavelets, and that these wavelets combine to produce a
new wavefront in the direction of propagation.
Diffraction geometry
Fresnel Screens
Path difference between successive zones = /2
Fresnel Zones
Fresnel Zone Clearance
Fresnel Zone Clearance
Fresnel Zone Clearance
A rule of thumb used for
line-of-sight microwave links
55% of the first Fresnel zone
to be cleared.
Fresnel Zone Clearance
A rule of thumb used for
line-of-sight microwave links
55% of the first Fresnel zone
to be cleared.
Diffraction geometry
Diffraction geometry
Diffraction Parameter
Assuming h << d
1
, d
2
& h >>,
Excess path length A ~ h
2
(d
1
+ d
2
)/(2 d
1
d
2
)
Phase difference | = 2tA/ = t v
2
/ 2 ?

o =|+ and considering tan o ~ o,
o ~ h (d
1
+ d
2
)/(d
1
d
2
)

Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter v
v = h {2(d
1
+ d
2
)/(d
1
d
2
)}
1/2

= o {2 d
1
d
2
/((d
1
+ d
2
))}
1/2


Fresnel diffraction geometry
Diffraction Gain
Electric Field Strength E
d
E
d
= E
o
F(v)
F(v) complex Fresnel integral evaluated
using tables / graphs

Diffraction gain G
d
(dB) = 20 log |F(v)|

Approximate solution for
G
d
(dB)
G
d
(dB) = 0 v s -1

G
d
(dB) = 20log(0.5-0.62 v ) -1sv s 0

G
d
(dB) = 20log{0.5exp(-0.95 v )} 0sv s 1

G
d
(dB) = 20log{0.4-[0.1184-(0.38-0.1 v
2
)]
1/2
}
1sv s 2.4
G
d
(dB) = 20log{0.225/ v } v > 2.4



Knife-edge diffraction loss
Multiple knife-edge diffraction
Scattering
Rough surfaces
Lamp posts and trees, scatter energy in all directions
Critical height for roughness h
c
= /(8 sinu
i
)
Smooth if its minimum to maximum protuberance
h < h
c

For rough surfaces, Scattering loss factor
S
to be
multiplied with surface reflection coefficient,
I
rough
=
S
I ;
S
is a function of , o
h
, u
i

Nearby metal objects (street signs, etc.)
Usually modeled statistically
Large distant objects
Analytical model: Radar Cross Section (RCS)
Bistatic radar equation
Measured results
Measured results
Propagation Models
Large scale models predict behavior averaged over distances >>
Function of distance & significant environmental features, roughly
frequency independent
Breaks down as distance decreases
Useful for modeling the range of a radio system and rough
capacity planning,
Path loss models, Outdoor models, Indoor models

Small scale (fading) models describe signal variability on a scale of
Multipath effects (phase cancellation) dominate, path attenuation
considered constant
Frequency and bandwidth dependent
Focus is on modeling Fading: rapid change in signal over a short
distance or length of time.
Free Space Path Loss
Path Loss is a measure of attenuation based only on the
distance to the transmitter
Free space model only valid in far-field;
Path loss models typically define a close-in point d
0

and reference other points from there:
2
0
0
) ( ) (
|
.
|

\
|
=
d
d
d P d P
r r
dB
dB r
d
d
d PL d P d PL
(

+ = =
0
0
2 ) ( )] ( [ ) (
Log-distance Path Loss
Log-distance generalizes path loss to account for other
environmental factors
Choose a d
0
in the far field.
Measure PL(d
0
) or calculate Free Space Path Loss.
Take measurements and derive n empirically.

dB
d
d
d PL d PL
(

+ =
0
0
) ( ) ( |
n
Typical large-scale path loss
Log-Normal Shadowing Model
Shadowing occurs when objects block LOS between
transmitter and receiver

A simple statistical model can account for unpredictable
shadowing
PL(d)(dB)=PL(d)+X
o

Where X
o
is a zero-mean Gaussian RV (in dB)
(distributed log normally), with standard deviation of
o (in dB)
o is usually from 3 to 12 dB
Longley-Rice Model
(ITS Irregular terrain model)
Point-to-point from 40MHz to 100GHz.
Predicts median transmission loss, Takes terrain into account, Uses
path geometry, Calculates diffraction losses, forward scatter theory
Inputs:
Frequency
Path length
Polarization and antenna heights
Surface refractivity
Effective radius of earth
Ground conductivity
Ground dielectric constant
Climate
Disadvantages
Does not take into account details of terrain near the receiver
Does not consider Buildings, Foliage, Multipath
Original model modified by Okamura for urban terrain
Longley-Rice Model
OPNET implementation
Durkins Model
It is a computer simulator for predicting field
strength contours over irregular terrain.
Line of sight or non-LOS
Edge diffractions using Fresnel zone
Disadvantage cannot adequately predict
propagation effects due to foliage, building,
and it cannot account for multipath
propagation.

2-D Propagation Raster data
Digital elevation models
(DEM) United States
Geological Survey (USGS)
Algorithm for line of sight
(LOS)
Line of sight (LOS) or not
Multiple diffraction
computation
Empirical Models
Okumura model
Curves based on extensive measurements(site/freq specific)
Awkward (uses graphs)
Hata model
Analytical approximation to Okumura model

Cost 231 Model:
Extends Hata model to higher frequency (2 GHz)

Walfish/Bertoni:
Cost 231 extension to include diffraction from rooftops
Commonly used in cellular system simulations
Okumura Model
It is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas,
and it is applicable for frequencies in the range 150 MHz to 1920 MHz
Based totally on measurements (not analytical calculations)
Applicable in the range: 150MHz to ~ 2000MHz, 1km to 100km T-R
separation, Antenna heights of BS upto 200m, MS upto 3m

Okumura Model
The major disadvantage with the model is its low response to rapid
changes in terrain, therefore the model is fairly good in urban areas,
but not as good in rural areas.
Common standard deviations between predicted and measured path
loss values are around 10 to 14 dB.
m 30 m 1000
200
log 20 ) ( > >
|
.
|

\
|
=
te
te
te
h
h
h G
m 3
3
log 10 ) ( s
|
.
|

\
|
=
re
re
re
h
h
h G
m 3 m 10
3
log 20 ) ( > >
|
.
|

\
|
=
re
re
re
h
h
h G
Okumura Correction factor
G
AREA
Hata Model
Empirical formulation of the graphical data in the
Okamura model. Valid 150MHz to 1500MHz, Used
for cellular systems

The following classification was used by Hata:
Urban area
Suburban area
Open area

Hata Model
E d B A L
dB
+ = log
C d B A L
dB
+ = log
D d B A L
dB
+ = log
b
h f A 82 . 13 log 16 . 26 55 . 69 + =
b
h B log 55 . 6 9 . 44 =
94 . 40 log 33 . 18 ) 28 / log( 78 . 4
2
+ + = f f D
4 . 5 )) 28 / (log( 2
2
+ = f C
MHz f h E
m
300 cities, large for 97 . 4 )) 75 . 11 (log( 2 . 3
2
> =
MHz f h E
m
300 cities, large for 1 . 1 )) 54 . 1 (log( 29 . 8
2
< =
cities small to medium for ) 8 . 0 log 56 . 1 ( ) 7 . 0 log 11 . 1 ( = f h f E
m
Urban area
Suburban area
Open area
- E
- E
PCS Extension of Hata Model
COST-231 Hata Model, European standard
Higher frequencies: up to 2GHz
Smaller cell sizes
Lower antenna heights

G E d B F L
dB
+ + = log
b
h f F log 82 . 13 log 9 . 33 3 . 46 + =
f >1500MHz
0
3
= G
Metropolitan centers
Medium sized city and suburban areas
Indoor Propagation
Models
The distances covered are much smaller
The variability of the environment is much greater
Key variables: layout of the building, construction materials,
building type, where the antenna mounted, etc.
In general, indoor channels may be classified either as LOS or
OBS with varying degree of clutter
The losses between floors of a building are determined by the
external dimensions and materials of the building, as well as the
type of construction used to create the floors and the external
surroundings.
Floor attenuation factor (FAF)

Signal Penetration into
Buildings
RF penetration has been found to be a function of frequency as
well as height within the building. Signal strength received
inside a building increases with height, and penetration loss
decreases with increasing frequency.
Walkers work shows that building penetration loss decrease at
a rate of 1.9 dB per floor from the ground level up to the 15
th

floor and then began increasing above the 15
th
floor. The
increase in penetration loss at higher floors was attributed to
shadowing effects of adjacent buildings.
Some devices to conduct the signals into the buildings

Repeater
Extend coverage range
Directional antenna or distributed antenna systems

Ray Tracing and Site
Specific Modeling
Site specific propagation model and graphical information
system. Ray tracing. Deterministic model.
Data base for buildings, trees, etc.
SitePlanner
Simple path loss/shadowing model:

Find Pr:


Find Noise power:
SINR:

Without shadowing (_ = 0), BPSK works 100%, 16QAM fails all the
time.
With shadowing (o
s
= 6dB):
BPSK: 16 QAM






75% of users can use BPSK modulation and hence get a PHY data
rate of 10 MHz 1 bit/symbol 1/2 = 5 Mbps
Less than 1% of users can reliably use 16QAM (4 bits/symbol) for a
more desirable data rate of 20 Mbps.
Interestingly for BPSK, w/o shadowing, we had 100%; and 16QAM:
0%!