The Changing Paradigm of Management

Is there a new paradigm and what does it look like?

What is the new paradigm

Greater emphasis on internal customers Leadership is dispersed Team orientation Relationships are crucial

What is a learning organization? Why is it needed?

A new paradigm is needed because in rapidly changing environments, hierarchical, mechanistic organizations dont work. Environment is changing rapidly because of

Globalization Information technology

WHAT IS A LEARNING ORGANIZATION?

A learning organization is a group of people working together to collectively enhance their capacities to create results they really care about.
Peter Senge
The Fifth Discipline

THE WHEEL OF LEARNING

Mastering the Rhythm of a Learning Organization

REFLECTING CONNECTING Individual DECIDING More DOING concrete Doing

Deciding
More abstract More action

Reflecting
(thinking and feeling)

Connecting

More reflection

Five Requirements of a Learning Organization

SHARED VISION TEAM LEARNING SYSTEMS THINKING ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING PERSONAL MASTERY

SHARED VISION

Not an idea. rather a force of impressive power. It lifts us out of our existing aspirations, and opens the doors to new ones.
Peter Senge The Fifth Discipline

SHARED VISION

Critical because it provides the focus and energy for learning. Gives a real sense of purpose. Must be realgenuine. Learning organizations and high performing teams can not excel-- or even exist -- without this. Promotes focus and long-term commitment to organizational effectiveness and survival.

INDIVIDUAL VISION IS NOT ENOUGH

Share your vision. See through each others eyes. Create a shared vision that everyone can support.

A TRUE SHARED VISION

Draws out the commitment of people throughout the organizationIF developed with everyones input. Not shared unless it has staying power and evolving life-force that lasts for years.

TEAM LEARNING
Team Learning is the process of aligning and developing the capacity of a team to create the results its members truly desire.
Peter Senge The Fifth Discipline

TEAM LEARNING

It is team learning, not individual learning, that adds to organizational learning. People need each other to achieve their objectives. Teams are the key learning group of organizations. Talented teams are made up of talented individuals. Team learning is the building block for organizational learning.

SYSTEMS THINKING
A system is a perceived whole whose elements hang together because they continually affect each other over time and operate toward a common purpose.
Peter Senge
The Fifth Discipline

SYSTEMS THINKING

Framework for focusing on patterns and interrelationships. Widens peoples perspectives. Involves adopting a holistic approach to problem solving no individual blaming. Involves the ability to see connections between issues, events and information as a whole or as patterns, rather than as a series of unconnected parts. Not breaking problems up into individual pieces. The focus is on trying to understand how relevant factors collectively interact to produce the problem.

ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING

It is team learning, not individual learning, that adds to organizational learning.

Peter Senge The Fifth Discipline

HOW ORGANIZATIONS LEARN

Organizational Learning

Team Learning
Individual Learning

PERSONAL MASTERY
The essence of Personal Mastery is focusing on ultimate desires approaching life from a creative, rather than a reactive viewpoint.
Peter Senge The Fifth Discipline

PERSONAL MASTERY

Relates to a special level of proficiency achieved through a commitment to lifelong learning.

Clear connection between individual development and organizational learning. More than achieving a set of skills and competencies. Based on a commitment to truth about current reality.

Forward Thinkers Have Person Mastery

Senge goes on to discuss personal mastery which in its essence, he says, is learning how to generate and sustain creative tension in our lives.

Personal Mastery is the intelligence which is the foundation of transformation.

Forward Thinkers have Personal Mastery

Personal Mastery the discipline of continually clarifying and deepening our personal vision, of focusing our energies, of developing patience, and of seeing reality objectively the learning organizations spiritual foundation. (Peter Senge)

The essence of personal mastery is learning how to generate and sustain creative tension in our lives.

What is Creativity ?
The ability to produce original, imaginative and unique ideas.

LATERAL THINKING ?

What is Creativity?

Imagination is more important than knowledge. Albert Einstein

DIVERGENT THINKING

Creativity and Decision Making

Phases of Creativity Theories of Creativity Blocks to Creativity Creativity Enhancing Techniques Value-Focused Thinking Approach Quality Tools for Creativity

Introduction

Better decisions requires better alternatives

Bad alternatives will lead to bad decisions

How do we obtain these better alternatives?

Extend beyond current the box Find ways to achieve objectives in new ways These new alternatives have elements of novelty and effectiveness

Creative?

But Im not creative enough!!

There are techniques and tools to enhance creativity These tools guide the formation and flow of ideas in the mind You can be an expert in your field, and that will help the creative process You can expand your cognitive process to become more creative

Other experiences, puzzles, reading, etc We want to have fluency and flexibility
Quickly generate many ideas across a wide range

Psychological Theories of Creativity

Well studied area; very rich literature Psychoanalytic Theory

Creative thought is the product of brain processing not accessible to conscious thought

Behavioral Theory

Creative behavior results from environmental stimuli Appropriate awards can lead to creative behavior

Cognitive Approach

Creative behavior stems from a capacity for making unusual and new mental associations of concepts Creative people create more variations

Psychological Theories of Creativity

Self-Actualization
Able to perceive reality accurately Compare cultures objectively Can look at things in a fresh, nave, simple way Be happy and thus be creative!

Phases of Creative Process

Preparation
Learn about the problem Examine problem from various perspectives Similar to structuring the problem Understanding the structure of the problem and how elements relate to one another is preparation for the creative process

Phases of Creative Process

Incubation Preparation

Explore new paths and alternatives Many include unconscious processing of information Find solutions to problems in a dream Position of pieces of information yields a creative solution How many have wanted to think about it for a while?

Phases of Creative Process

Preparation Incubation Illumination

When all the pieces come together

Verification
Does the solution have merit? Return to the hard logic of the problem Are all constraints being satisfied? How well does it perform with respect to the fundamental objectives?

Blocks to Creativity
A block to creativity interferes with creativity Why should we be concerned about them?

They hinder our decision analytical process If we understand what they are, and why they hinder the process, we can hopefully avoid them

Framing and Perceptual Blocks

Arise in the ways we tend to perceive, define, and examine the problem

Perceptual Blocks
Stereotyping fit into some standard category Tacit assumptions impose artificial constraints Saturation

Focus too quickly on obvious problem Focusing to much on details Getting overwhelmed with data

Inability to see problem from other viewpoints

Multiple objectives will be at play Must understand others values and objectives

Emotional or Value-based Blocks

Fear of taking a risk

Risk aversion is a key decision analysis concept May be counterproductive to not offer wild ideas

Status quo bias

Various levels of bias to current state of affairs Change can be hard to accept

Reality versus Fantasy

Some people only want realistic solutions Such people are comfortable in their box

Emotional or Value-based Blocks

Judgment and Criticism

Do not apply your values too soon in creative process Need to let ideas flow freely

Inability to Incubate
Not well understood Accepted as a phase Are we always given time to incubate an idea?

Environmental Blocks
Non-supportive environment Environment that dissuades humor and playfulness Organization is overly structured and routine Strictly hierarchical structure Autocratic bosses

Bosses that have all the answers

Over focus on awards, competition and oversight Strict timelines

Often a tight suspense can lead to good results

Brainstorming
Introduced in 1930s by Osborn Based on idea of eliminating perceptual blocking filters Two Principles:

Defer judgment Quantity breeds quality

Four rules
Rule out criticism Welcome freewheeling Seek large quantities of ideas Encourage combination and improvement of ideas

Brainstorming

Works due to its synergistic effect

Among participants Combining of ideas is not just additive Combine pairs, triples, etc of ideas to get new ideas

Generally regarded as a group technique based on a specific objective

Specificity focuses the efforts

Useful in situations calling for idea generation rather than judgment

Synectics

Gordon in 50s found novel ideas expressed as analogies

Research suggested use of analogies a key insight

Reduce problem to barest essentials and search for a natural analogy Two distinguishing characteristics
Attack of the underlying concept of the problem Examination of problem from many angles

Three types of analogy (metaphorical thinking)

Fantasy idealistic versus realistic Direct find personal parallel experiences Personal place yourself in role of problem

Checklists
Very simple means of generating ideas Ask and list answers to series of questions. For instance

Are there other uses? Can something be adapted? Can something be modified? Can components be re-arranged? Can components be combined? Can some substitution be made?

Osborn (1963) offered a series of idea spurring questions.

Obsorns Questions

Put to other uses?

New ways to use as is Other uses if modified

Adapt?
What else is like this? What other idea does this suggest? Does the past offer a parallel? What could I copy? Whom could I emulate?

Obsorns Questions

Modify?
New twist? Change meaning, color, motion, sound, odor, form shape? Other changes?

Magnify?
What to add? More time? Greater frequency? Stronger? Higher? Longer? Thicker? Extra value? Plus ingredient? Duplicate? Multiply? Exaggerate?

Obsorns Questions

Minify?
What to subtract? Smaller? Condensed? Minature? Lower? Shorter? Lighter? Omit? Streamline? Split up? Understate?

Substitute?
Who else instead? What else instead? Other ingredient? Other material? Other process? Other power? Other place? Other approach? Other tone of voice?

Obsorns Questions

Rearrange
Interchange components? Other pattern? Other layout? Other sequence? Transpose cause and effect? Change pace? Change schedule?

Reverse?
Transpose positive and negative? How about opposites? Turn it backward? Turn it upside down? Reverse roles? Change shoes? Turn tables? Turn other cheek?

Obsorns Questions

Combine?
How about a blend, an alloy, as assortment, an ensemble? Combine units? Combine purposes? Combine appeals? Combine ideas?

Forced Relationships

Generate ideas by relating seemingly unrelated ideas

Use combining concept from brainstorming Ideas may be related yielding more mundane solutions

Use ideas related to the problem and possible to each other if more practical ideas are required
Less effort validating the ideas

Start with the more general ideas and increase the specifics used later Somewhat related is Attribute Listing

Morphological Analysis

Develop a grid of attributes along several dimensions Examine combinations of attributes Try to determine a solution/alternative to each combination Really provides a framework within which to screen all combinations and determine the most appropriate combinations Strategy-generation table is closely related

Strategy-generation Table

Strategy Inputs Process

Outputs

FACTORS FOR CREATIVITY

Mastery of the Subject Curiosity Divergent Thinking Take Risks Motivation and Persistence Serendipity

THE CREATIVE PROCESS

Preparation Incubation Insight Evaluation Elaboration

4-Step CPS Model

1. Preparation: analysis of problem, initial idea generation

2. Incubation: rest period

3. Illumination: ideas expanded upon then refined, evaluated, supported, and selected 4. Implementation/Verification: plan of action developed, control methods incorporated

4-Step CPS Model Step 1: Preparation

analysis of problem, initial idea generation In this phase of the model you want to carefully

define your problem. Look at your problem from

all angles and ask multiple questions. Determine what your assumptions are about the problem and

test them to find out if they are fact or fiction.

Research possible solutions and use divergent thinking to generate ideas.

4-Step CPS Model Step 2: Incubation

rest period In this phase of the model let your ideas incubate so

you can reflect on the situation.

You may find that new ideas come to you at weird times. Record the ideas and note when

and where the ideas were triggered. This may be

the optimum time for idea generation for you.

4-Step CPS Model Step 3: Illumination

ideas expanded upon then refined, evaluated, supported, and selected (promising ideas,

convergent thinking)
Using your ideas from the previous steps and any new ideas you may want to generate, use convergent thinking techniques and/or rules to categorize, eliminate, evaluate and combine your ideas. Then re-evaluate your ideas until the best SOLUTION becomes evident.

4-Step CPS Model Step 4: Implementation/Verification

plan of action developed, control methods incorporated In this phase, construct a plan of action to implement your solution. Also, determine how and by when you will measure the success from this solution, and if it fails, what other options you will consider.
Beneficial Questions: Who will be involved? Who do you need to ask for help? What has to be done before you can begin? What resources will you need? What are the best alternative solutions? Where will it take place? When do you need to start? When would you like to finish? Why do you need to follow through? How will you implement it? How will you determine that your solution is working? When will you switch to an alternative plan if this one fails?

Fitts and Posners Three Stage Model

COGNITIVE STAGE

ASSOCIATIVE STAGE Refinement of movement pattern

AUTONOMOUS STAGE Performance of movement virtually automatic

Development of basic movement pattern

Practice

Cognitive Stage

High degree of cognitive activity Movements lack synchronization and appear choppy and deliberate Numerous errors, typically gross in nature Lacks capability to determine cause of errors or correct them

Associative Stage
More consistent Fewer, less gross errors Better at detecting cause of errors Begin to develop appropriate error correction strategies

Autonomous Stage

Highest level of proficiency

Not all learners will reach this stage

Attention reallocated to strategic decision-making Consistent Confident

Make few errors and can generally detect and correct those errors that do occur

The Components of Creative Intelligence

Input Ideas: Many Crazy Stupid Bad Random

Transform Inputs to Outputs

Output Ideas: Few New Different Good Out-of-the-box

What is Ideation?

Ideation

Project Management

Ideation is a formal, structured process

Output ideas ready to start development projects.

Four Goals of an Ideation Process:

To stimulate large improvements in 1. Quality and volume of new ideas, - More good ideas per minute. 2. Idea-to-project hit-rate, - More good ideas end up in products. 3. Cross-linking of ideas to create new opportunities, - Generate many new ideas in parallel feed off each other. Need systematic idea generation and prioritization processes.

4. Visibility of plans, activities, results, and methods, - People can see that you are making good progress!

Problem Solving
Developing Life Skills

Life is full of crises, problems, and decisions, but many people do not have the appropriate skills to manage them. Much of what we think of as problematic behavior in a client can be viewed as the consequence of ineffective behavior and thinking. The individual is unable to resolve certain dilemmas in his or her life.

The unproductive attempts to do so have adverse effects such as anxiety and depression, not to mention the creation of additional problems such as confrontations and interpersonal conflict. For the professional the way to decode the clients sometimes incomprehensible actions is to ask yourself what he or she is trying to achieve?

Often, what the client is trying to achieve is the narrowing of the discrepancy between their actual state of affairs and their desired state of affairs. The discrepancy is the problem, and the clients solutions may be making things worse. Problem solving aims to reduce or eliminate this gap with some modification.

Most often as problem solvers we try to improve the actual state of affairs by finding an answer to a difficulty, a solution to a problem. Group problem solving is generally more fruitful than individual effort. In the problem solving approach small is not so much beautiful as manageable.

Problems are not manageable when they are conceived in large global terms.
Everything is going wrong. He will never change. There is no hope. I seem to have the world on my shoulders.

You break through this rhetoric by trying to establish and obtain relevant facts.

The more your clients can adopt a mental set that they can cope with a problem, the greater the likelihood that with your help they will come up with a solution to it. The feeling of being in control, not helpless is vital to the successful working through of difficult situations and is invaluable when you are involved in crisis interventions.

You re-label the problem for the clients, defining what they once thought of as impenetrable as manageable given thought and calm application of a series of interpersonal problem solving strategies.

The Development of Problem Solving Skills

Interpersonal problem solving skills are learned from experiences beginning in the family and wherever the child interacts with others in situations that give rise to interpersonal difficulties. How well the developing child learns these skills is thought to reflect the extent to which the childs caregivers manifest these abilities themselves.

Also, the degree to which parents communicate in ways that encourage the exercise of such thinking in the child. The emphasis is very much on how the person thinks. The goal in therapy or training is to generate as way of thinking, a way of using beliefs and values in making decisions at such times the problems arise.

Interpersonal Problem Solving Skills

Problem sensitivity:
Ability to be aware of problems that arise out of social situations. A sensitivity to the kinds of social situations out of which interpersonal difficulties may arise. Ability to examine relationships with others in the here and now.

Alternative solution training:

Ability to generate a wide variety of potential solutions to the problem. Skill is to draw from a repertoire of ideas representing differing categories of solutions to a given problem.

Brainstorming:
The creative art of generating the greatest number of ideas in the shortest possible time. Acceptance of every idea uncritically Aim for quantity not quality At this stage do not initiate any discussion List the ideas Set a time limit

Means-ends thinking:
Ability to articulate the step by step means necessary to carry out the solution to a given interpersonal problem. Ability to recognize obstacles, the social sequences deriving from these solutions. Recognition that interpersonal problem solving takes time.

Consequential thinking:
Being aware of the consequences of social acts as they affect self and others. Ability to generate alternative consequences to potential problem solutions before acting.

Causal thinking:
Reflects the degree of appreciation of social and personal motivation. Involves the realization that how one felt and acted may have been influenced by and, in turn, may have influenced how others felt and acted.

A Problem Solving Model

Defining the problem and its severity as precisely as possible. This entails:

Assessing the current (actual) state of affairs Specifying the desired (ideal) state of affairs (goals)

Assessing the nature and magnitude of the problem. This entails:

Listing the forces helping the client move toward the desired goals Listing the forces hindering the client from moving toward this goal.

In force-field analysis as it is called, the problem is viewed as a balance between forces pushing in opposite directions.

Formulate alternative strategies. This entails:

Moving the client from the actual to the desired state of affairs. Creative and divergent thinking Inventiveness Critical ability

You have to change the helping forces and the hindering forces in order to alter the current state of affairs.

Now decide and implement the strategy. This entails:

Selecting the alternatives that seem most likely to succeed. Specifying the know-how methods and other resources required to implement the chosen strategy.

Evaluate the outcome of applying the strategy. This entails:

Defining what a successful outcome means in terms of explicit criteria. Specifying what the effects or consequences of the strategy were.

What is Higher-Level Thinking?

All thought processes that are higher than rote memorization or basic comprehension. A more advanced level of thought. Involves jacking up your thinking to levels that go beyond merely remembering, reproducing, or regurgitating factual information.

The Major Forms of Higher-Level Thinking

Analysis Breaking down information and identifying its key parts or underlying elements 2. Synthesis Building up ideas by integrating separate pieces of information to form a larger whole or more comprehensive product
1.

3.

Multidimensional Thinking Taking multiple perspectives and considering multiple theories

Forms of Higher-Level Thinking

4.

Dialectical Thinking Considering opposing viewpoints Balanced Thinking Seeking out and giving careful consideration to evidence for and against a particular position Inferential Reasoning Making arguments and drawing conclusions. Start with a premise and use it to infer or step to a conclusion

5.

6.

Forms of Higher-Level Thinking continued

7.

Critical Thinking A higher level thought process that involves making a judgment or evaluation. It is used to evaluate ideas, beliefs, choices, and decisions. Critical thinking asks the question why ?

8.

Creative Thinking Developing something new or different, whether it be a product, an idea, a method, or a strategy. Creative thinking asks the question why not?

Learning Organization
A critical element of for successful knowledge management is to transform individual learning into organizational learning. A learning organization is an organization that has enhanced capacity to learn, adapt and changeGepahart.

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Learning Organization
A learning organization is an organization that purposefully designs and constructs its structure, culture, and strategy so as to enhance and maximize the potential for organizational learning to take place. It is an organization in which learning processes are analyzed, monitored, developed, managed and aligned with improvement and innovative goals.

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Working Smarter, Not Harder Introduction to Knowledge Management

Economic reliance on knowledge workers is increasing

Knowledge gap Customers and businesses want a more integrated approach Best to say you are in the knowledge business

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Three primary causes of change

Global

literacy Invention of electronic infrastructures Social revitalization

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A knowledge society requires literacy -because of the vastly expanding corpus of knowledge we will also be required to learn how to learn.
Peter Drucker, Managing For the Future, 1992,

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Literacy - Knowledge Business Jargon

Community of Practice The Learning Organization Corporate University Chief Learning Officer (CLO) Chief Knowledge Officer (CKO) Dean of Corporate Education

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Electronic Infrastructures Knowledge Business Jargon

"Knowledge management] embodies organizational processes that seek synergistic combination of data and information-processing capacity of information technologies, and the creative and innovative capacity of human beings."

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Social Revitalization
Literacy and technology skills cannot replace physical human interaction People want more meaningful connections both professionally and personally

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Working Smarter, Not Harder

Overlapping Human/Organizational/ Technological factors in KM:

People (workforce) Organizational Processes Technology (IT infrastructure)

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OVERLAPPING FACTORS OF KM

Knowledge

PEOPLE ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESSES

TECHNOLOGY

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What is knowledge?
Knowledge is understanding gained through experience or study. Knowledge is the full utilization of information and data, coupled with the potential of peoples skills, competencies, ideas, institutions, commitments, and motivators-Grey

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What is knowledge?
Knowledge is more relevant to sustained business than capital, labour and land. Knowledge provides ability to respond in novel situations. Knowledge encompasses ideas, judgments, talents, root causes, relationships, and concepts.

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What is knowledge?
Knowledge is stored in the individual brain or encoded in the organizational processes, documents, products, services, facilities and systems. Knowledge is the result of learning, which provides only sustainable competitive advantage.

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What is knowledge?

It may be accumulation of facts, procedural rules, or heuristics.

A fact is a statement or some element of truth about a subject matter or a domain. A procedural rule is a rule that describes a sequence of relations relative to the main. A heuristic is a rule of thumb based on years of experience.

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Basic terminologies
Intelligence- It refers to capacity to acquire and apply knowledge. Memory- The ability to store and retrieve relevant experience or information at will. It is the part of intelligence. Learning- It is knowledge or skill that is acquired through instruction, study and experience.

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Basic terminologies
Experience- It relates to what we have done and what historically happened in a specific area of work. Data- Data are unorganized and unprocessed facts. It is a set of discrete facts about events. Information- It is an aggregation of data that makes decision making easier. It is the set of facts and figures based on reformatted or processed data.

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Types of knowledge
Shallow and deep knowledge Shallow knowledge or surface knowledge refers to minimum understanding of the problem area. Deep knowledge is knowledge acquired through years of experience and needed to solve complex issues and problems related to tasks.

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Types of knowledge
Procedural and episodic knowledge Procedural knowledge is understanding of how to do a Task or carry out a procedure. Episodic knowledge is knowledge based on experiential information or episodes.

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Types of knowledge
Explicit and tacit knowledge Tacit knowledge is the knowledge embedded in the human mind through experience and jobs. It includes intuitions, values, and beliefs that stem from years of experience. Explicit knowledge is knowledge codified and digitized in books, documents, reports, white papers, spreadsheets, memos, training course etc. Explicit knowledge can be retrieved and transmitted easily than tacit knowledge.

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EXPLICIT AND TACIT KNOWLEDGE

Oral Communication Tacit Knowledge 50-95%

Information Request

Explicit Knowledge

Information Feedback

Explicit Knowledge Base 5%

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Types of knowledge
Culturally based knowledge Dictionary knowledge-Commonly used descriptions-What? Directory knowledge-How? Recipe knowledge-PrescriptionsShould Axiomatic knowledge-Reasons and explanations-Why?

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WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT?

Process of capturing and making use of a firms collective expertise anywhere in the business Doing the right thing, NOT doing things right Viewing company processes as knowledge processes Knowledge creation, dissemination, upgrade, and application toward organizational survival

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WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT?

Knowledge management involves gathering, structuring, storing, and accessing information to build knowledge. Knowledge management involves knowledge sharing.

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KM

KM contains
Using accessible knowledge from outside sources Embedding and storing knowledge in business processes, products and services Representing knowledge in databases and documents Promoting knowledge growth through organizations culture and incentives Transferring and sharing of knowledge through out the organization Assessing the value of knowledge assets and its impacts on regular basis.

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Activities of KM
Developing databases about customers, common problems, and prior solutions. Identifying internal experts, clarifying what they know, and developing yellow pages that describe these key internal resources and how to identify them. Eliciting and capturing knowledge from these experts to disseminate to others. Designing knowledge structures that help organize information in a way that is accessible and readily applicable.

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Activities of KM
Creating forums for people to share their experiences and ideas. Utilizing groupware to allow multiple people, in different locations, to work on problems together. Taking action to identify, track and retain talented people who possess knowledge required in key core business areas. Implementing reward, recognition, and promotional practices, that encourage information sharing.

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Activities of KM
Building job aids, and performance support tools that allow people to access and apply knowledge when needed. Measuring intellectual capital in an attempt to better manage knowledge

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Culture Competition Collect Create Organize

TechnoMaintain logy

Intelligence
Knowledge Organization Refine Disseminate

Knowledge Management Process

Leadership

KM Drivers

THE KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION

The middle layer addresses the KM life cycle A knowledge organization derives knowledge from customer, product, and financial knowledge. Also from financial practices Indicators of knowledge: thinking actively and ahead, not passively and behind Using technology to facilitate knowledge sharing and innovation

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IDEAL KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

Outside Environment Existing methods/ processes

Learning

Conversion

PEOPLE
Insights New ideas

New products New markets Smarter problem-solving Value-added innovation Better quality customer service More efficient processes More experienced staff

Knowledge Creation

Knowledge Base

Organizational Benefits

Codified Technology

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IDEAL KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

Strategy Measurement Policy Content Process Technology Culture
Knowledge Internalization

Knowledge Exchange

People
Knowledge Capture Knowledge Exchange

Knowledge Assets

Knowledge Reuse

People

Knowledge Reuse

People

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IDEAL KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

The ideal knowledge organization allows people to exchange knowledge across functional areas via technology and established processes Knowledge internalized and adopted within the culture of the organization

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Organizational personnel

Managemen t Decision making

KM Life Cycle . capture . gathering . organizing . refining . transfer Culture Information technology

WHY KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT?

Sharing knowledge, a company creates exponential benefits from the knowledge as people learn from it Building better sensitivity to brain drain Reacting instantly to new business opportunities Ensuring successful partnering and core competencies with suppliers, vendors, customers, and other constituents Shortens the learning curve
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Definitions
Learning: Knowledge acquired by instruction or study; consequence of intelligent problem solving Experience: Relates to what weve done and to knowledge; experience leads to expertise Common Sense: Unreflective opinions of ordinary people Heuristic: A rule of thumb based on years of experience

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Data, Information, and Knowledge

Data: Unorganized and unprocessed facts; static; a set of discrete facts about events Information: Aggregation of data that makes decision making easier Knowledge is derived from information in the same way information is derived from data; it is a persons range of information

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Data, Information, and Knowledge

Data is a set of discrete facts about events Information becomes knowledge with questions like what implications does this information have for my final decision? Knowledge is understanding of information based on its perceived importance Knowledge, not information, can lead to a competitive advantage in business

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Types of Knowledge
Shallow (readily recalled) and deep (acquired through years of experience) Explicit (codified) and tacit (embedded in the mind) Procedural (psychomotor skills) versus episodical (chunked by episodes; autobiographical) Chunking knowledge

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Knowledge as Know-How
Know-how distinguishes an expert from a novice Experts represent their know-how in terms of heuristics, based on experience Know-how is not book knowledge; it is practical experience

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Reasoning and Heuristics

Humans reason in a variety of ways: Reasoning by analogy: relating one concept to another Formal reasoning: using deductive or inductive methods Case-based reasoning: reasoning from relevant past cases

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Deductive and inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning: exact reasoning. It deals with exact facts and exact conclusions Inductive reasoning: reasoning from a set of facts or individual cases to a general conclusion

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FROM PROCEDURAL TO EPISODIC KNOWLEDGE

Shallow Knowledge

Procedural Knowledge Knowledge of how to do a task that is essentially motor in nature; the same knowledge is used over and over again. _______________________________________________ Declarative Knowledge Surface-type information that is available in short-term memory and easily verbalized; useful in early stages

of knowledge capture but less so in later stages.

_______________________________________________ Semantic Knowledge Hierarchically organized knowledge of concepts, facts, and relationships among facts. _______________________________________________ Episodic Knowledge Knowledge that is organized by temporal spatial means, not by concepts or relations; experiential information that is chunked by episodes. This knowledge is highly compiled Deep Knowledge and autobiographical and is not easy to extract or capture.
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EXPLICIT AND TACIT KNOWLEDGE

Explicit knowledge: knowledge codified and digitized in books, documents, reports, memos, etc. Tacit knowledge: knowledge embedded in the human mind through experience and jobs Tacit and explicit knowledge have been expressed in terms of knowing-how and knowing-that, respectively Understanding what knowledge is makes it easier to understand that knowledge hoarding is basic to human nature. 2
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Knowledge As An Attribute of Expertise

An expert in a specialized area masters the requisite knowledge The unique performance of a knowledgeable expert is clearly noticeable in decision-making quality Knowledgeable experts are more selective in the information they acquire Experts are beneficiaries of the knowledge that comes from experience See Figure 2.5 next: academic knowledge contributes to conceptual knowledgea prerequisite for practical knowledge
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Human Learning
Learning occurs in one of three ways: Learning by experience: a function of time and talent Learning by example: more efficient than learning by experience Learning by discovery: undirected approach in which humans explore a problem area with no advance knowledge of what their objective is.

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KM System Justification
Is current knowledge going to be lost? Is proposed system needed in several locations? Are experts available/willing? Can experts articulate how problem will be solved? Is there a champion in the house?

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FACTORS TRIGGERING INTEREST IN KM

Innovation as core competency Globalization and geographic disperson changed the organizations scope Downsizing and reengineering resulted in staff attrition and knowledge drain Networking and data communications made it easier and faster to share knowledge Increasing dominance of knowledge as a basis for improving efficiency and effectiveness triggered the need for utilizing knowledge gained from previous experiences
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KM LIFE CYCLE
Four-Process View of KM: Capturing data entry, scanning, voice input, interviewing, brainstorming Organizing cataloging, indexing, filtering, linking, codifying Refining contextualizing, collaborating, compacting, Projecting, mining Transfer flow, sharing, alert, push

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Conclusion
Literacy + Electronic Infrastructure + Social Revitalization = Opportunity for New Societal Infrastructure

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Knowledge As An Attribute of Expertise

An expert in a specialized area masters the requisite knowledge The unique performance of a knowledgeable expert is clearly noticeable in decision-making quality Knowledgeable experts are more selective in the information they acquire Experts are beneficiaries of the knowledge that comes from experience See Figure 2.5 next: academic knowledge contributes to conceptual knowledgea prerequisite for practical knowledge
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Human Learning
Learning occurs in one of three ways: Learning by experience: a function of time and talent Learning by example: more efficient than learning by experience Learning by discovery: undirected approach in which humans explore a problem area with no advance knowledge of what their objective is.

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CHALLENGES IN BUILDING KM SYSTEMS

Culture getting people to share knowledge Knowledge evaluation assessing the worth of knowledge across the firm Knowledge processing documenting how decisions are reached Knowledge implementation organizing knowledge and integrating it with the processing strategy for final deployment

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CONVENTIONAL VERSUS KM SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE

Key differences: Systems analysts deal with information from the user; knowledge developers deal with knowledge for company specialists Users know the problem but not the solution; company specialists know the problem and the solution System development is primarily sequential; KMSLC is incremental and interactive System testing normally at end of cycle; KM system testing evolves from beginning of the cycle
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Conventional Versus KM System Life Cycle (contd)

System development more extensive than for KMSLC Conventional system life cycle is process-driven specify then build; KMSLC is result-oriented start slow and grow Conventional system life cycle does not support rapid prototyping; KMSLC does

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Rapid Prototyping Process

Structure the Problem

Reformula te the Problem

Repeated Cycle(s) Structure a Task

Make Modificatio ns

Repeated Cycle(s) Build a Task

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Conventional Versus KM System Life Cycle (contd)

Key similarities: Both begin with a problem and end with a solution Both begin with information gathering or capture Testing is essentially the same to make sure the system is right and it is the right system Both developers must choose the appropriate tool(s) for designing their respective systems
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KM System Development Life Cycle

Evaluate existing infrastructure Form the KM team Knowledge capture Design KM blueprint (master plan) Test the KM system Implement the KM system Manage change and reward structure Post-system evaluation
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Evaluate Existing Infrastructure

System justification: Will current knowledge be lost through retirement, transfer, or departure to other firms? Is the proposed KM system needed in several locations? Are experts available and willing to help in building a KM system? Does the problem in question require years of experience and cognitive reasoning to solve?
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System Justification (contd)

When undergoing knowledge capture, can the expert articulate how problem will be solved? How critical is the knowledge to be captured? Are the tasks nonalgorithmic? Is there a champion in the house?

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The Scope Factor

Consider breadth and depth of the project within financial, human resource, and operational constraints Project must be completed quickly enough for users to foresee its benefits Check to see how current technology will match technical requirements of the proposed KM system

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The Feasibility Question

A feasibility study addresses several questions: Is the project doable? Is it affordable? Is it appropriate? Is it practicable?

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The Feasibility Question (contd)

Areas of feasibility: Economic feasibility determines to what extent a new system is cost-effective Technical feasibility is determined by evaluating hardware and supportive software within companys IT infrastructure Behavioral feasibility includes training management and employees in the use of the KM system

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The Feasibility Question (contd)

Traditional approach to conducting a feasibility study: Form a KM team Prepare a master plan Evaluate cost/performance of proposed KM Quantify system criteria and costs Gain user support throughout the process

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Role of Strategic Planning

Risky to plunge with a new KM system without strategizing. Consider the following: Vision Foresee what the business is trying to achieve, how it will be done, and how the new system will achieve goals Resources Check on the affordability of the business to invest in a new KM system Culture Is the companys political and social environment amenable to adopting a new KM system?
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Business Environment Competitive threats; government regulations; customer threats Impacts Drives KM Technology Quality and reliability of the infrastructure and IT staff and resources Impacts

Strategic Plan Regarding products or services, market, customers, suppliers, etc.

Enables

KM Strategy Focus on competitive advantage, role of IT, and level of creativity and knowledge innovation

KM Team Formation
Identify the key stakeholders in the prospective KM system. Team success depends on: Caliber of team members Team size Complexity of the project Leadership and team motivation Promising more than can be realistically delivered

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KNOWLEDGE CAPTURE
Explicit knowledge captured in repositories from various media Tacit knowledge captured from company experts using various tools and methodologies Knowledge developers capture knowledge from experts in order to build the knowledge base Knowledge capture and transfer often carried out through teams, not just individuals

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Knowledge Capture and Transfer Through Teams

Team performs a specialized task

Outcome Achieved

Evaluate relationship between action and outcome

Feedback

Knowledge stored in a form usable by others in the organization

Knowledge transfer method selected

Knowledge Developer

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Selecting an Expert
Knowledge base should represent expertise rather than the expert Questions facing knowledge developer: How does one know the expert is in fact an expert? How would one know that the expert will stay with the project? What backup should be available in case the project loses the expert? How would the knowledge developer know what is and what is not within the experts area of expertise? 3
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Role of the Knowledge Developer

The architect of the system Job requires excellent communication skills, knowledge capture tools, conceptual thinking, and a personality that motivates people Close contacts with the champion Rapport with top management for ongoing support

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KNOWLEDGE WORKER

Progress Reports Prototypes

CHAMPION

Demos

Support
Feedback Solutions Interactive Interface User Acceptanc e Rules KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPER

Knowledge
Testing

KNOWLEDGE BASE

KNOWER

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Design of the KM Blueprint

The KM system design (blueprint) addresses several issues: System interoperability and scalability with existing company IT infrastructure Finalize scope of proposed KM system with realized net benefits Decide on required system components Develop the key layers of the KM architecture to meet company requirements. Key layers are: User interface Authentication/security layer Collaborative agents and filtering Application layer Transport Internet layer Physical layer
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Testing the KM System

Verification procedure: ensures that the system is right Validation procedure: ensures that the system is the right system Validation of KM systems is not foolproof

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Implementing the KM System

Converting a new KM system into actual operation This phase includes conversion of data or files This phase also includes user training Quality assurance is paramount, which includes checking for: Reasoning errors Ambiguity Incompleteness False representation (false positive and false negative)

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Resisters of Change

Experts Regular employees (users) Troublemakers Narrow-minded superstars Resistance via projection, avoidance, or aggression

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Communities of Practice

The definition of a community of practice is "a group of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in an area by interacting on an ongoing basis"

Communities of Practice

CoPs - cross-functional and multiskilled,

functional position is irrelevant the topic knowledge or interest is all necessary

The diversity of a CoP's population may encourage creativity and problem solving, and linkages to external communities as CoPs are the legitimate place for learning through participation

CoPs attributes

Variety

Identity
Significance

Autonomy Feedback

multi-skilling prevents boredom and monotony, and builds flexibility building an identity encourages a sense of collective responsibility and self-regulation; motivation to care about the outcome of the work process increases cooperation when the outcome is imbued with a sense of significance; increases the ownership and responsibility of members to the process; understanding and knowing the results of work processes enables groups to monitor their progress against targets and improve their performance.

4 Important barriers that can overcome CoPs

Awareness: Making seekers and sources aware of their respective knowledge Access: Providing the time and space for seekers and sources to connect with one another Application: Ensuring that the knowledge seeker and source have a common content and understanding Perception: Creating an atmosphere where knowledge sharing behaviors between seekers

4 Types of communities
Innovation communities Helping communities Best-practice communities - attaining, validating and disseminating knowledge; Knowledge-stewarding CoPsconnecting people and collecting information and knowledge across the organisation

10 characteristics of successful CoP

1.

Clear business value proposition; 2. Dedicated skilled leader; 3. Knowledge map for the CoPs core content; 4. Easy-to-follow knowledge sharing process; 5. Technology medium that facilitates knowledge exchange 6. Communication and training plans for outsiders of CoP; 7. Updated, dynamic list of CoP members; 8. Key success metrics to show business results; 9. Recognition plan for participants; 10. Agenda of topics to cover for the first months of existence

Conclusion
Organizational learning and knowledge sharing are major factors for success for KM initiatives The focus is put on human factors, the main limitations for effective collaboration are related to the human nature and lack of adequate motivation policy. In this context Communities of practice are appearing as an instrument, overcoming the behavior constraints and manifesting the emergence of new organizational culture