A REPORT ON DESIGN OF CYCLONE SEPARATOR FOR GASIFICATION PLANT BY SAMEER NIKAM 2008B2A4429G

RITHEESH.K

2008A4PS326P

AT BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED. TRICHY

A PRACTICE SCHOOL I STATION OF BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE, PILANI JULY, 2010

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A REPORT ON DESIGN OF CYCLONE SEPARATOR FOR GASIFICATION PLANT BY SAMEER NIKAM 2008B2A4429G B.E (HONS) MECHANICAL

RITHEESH.K

2008A4PS326P

B.E (HONS) MECHANICAL

Prepared in partial fulfillment of the Practice school I course

AT BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LTD. TRICHY

A PRACTICE SCHOOL I STATION BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE, PILANI JULY, 2010

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BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE PILANI (RAJASTHAN) Practice School Division Station: BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED Duration: From 24th May 2010 to 16th July 2010 Date of Submission: 15th July 2010 Title of the project: DESIGN OF CYCLONE SEPARATOR FOR GASIFICATION PLANT.
SAMEER NIKAM 2008B2A4429G B.E (HONS) MECHANICAL

Centre: Trichy

RITHEESH.K

2008A4PS326P

B.E (HONS) MECHANICAL Designation: Senior Engineer

Name of the expert: Mr V.Anil Kumar Reddy Name of the PS faculty: Dr P.Srinivasan

Keywords: Cyclone, Cyclone Separator, Collection efficiency, Cut-off diameter, Mass fraction, Pressure drop Project Area: Combined Cycle Demonstration Plant

Abstract:
Cyclone separation is perhaps the oldest method of separation of ash particles. It uses simple principle of vortex separation .Gas along with impurities enter the gas inlet while

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clean gas leaves from top and ash is collected at the bottom which is further carried using ash conveying system Our project aimed at understanding the state of art of cyclonic separation, designing a cyclone separator with maximum efficiency for a given set of inlet parameters and mass fraction for different size ranges. This report brings out detailed study of combined cycle and principle of cyclonic separation. In addition to this it gives design of high efficiency cyclone separator using an excel spreadsheet. The report also provides sensitivity analysis with help of graphs.

Signature of student(s)

Signature of PS faculty

Dr.P SRINIVASAN

Date:

Date:

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude to Mr. Anil Kumar Reddy , Senior Engineer, CCDP, BHEL for his guidance ,encouragement, his strenuous effort and facilities extended without which this project would not have taken this present shape We would like to thank Mr. R S N Prasad, DGM, CCDP for his guidance. We would also like to thank Mr. M Selvakumar, SDGM, CCDP for helping us with the project. We would also like to thank Mr. G Viswanathan, GM, and CCDP for allowing us to work at CCDP. We would also like to thank Mr. K Chandra Sekaran, Additional general manager HRDC, BHEL and Mr.G Narayana Doss, Senior Manager HRDC, BHEL for giving us this opportunity. We are grateful to Dr.P Srinivasan, Instructor in charge, for his constant encouragement and suggestions to carry out this project. I would like to thank all my friends and other people who helped us with this project.

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work titled DESIGN OF CYCLONE SEPARATOR FOR GASIFICATION PLANT is a bonafide work done by SAMEER NIKAM and RITHEESH K for their Practice school I of BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE, PILANI.

Mr.V. ANIL KUMAR REDDY

Dr.P SRINIVASAN

Senior Engineer CCDP Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. Trichy

Instructor Practice school 1 BHEL, Trichy

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PART-A
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. BHEL 8 1.1 OVERVIEW.8

2. BHEL:TIRUCHIRAPALLI9 2.1 2.2 INTRODUCTION9 PRODUCT PROFILE..10

3. SEAMLESS STEEL TUBE PLANT..13 4. TUBULAR PRODUCTS SHOP19 4.1 4.2 4.3 INTRODUCTION.19 PRODUCTION.19 SAFETY21

5. VALVES DEPARTMENT..22 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 MANUFACTURING FACILITIES.22 PRODUCTS..23 SERVICES24 CUSTOMERS...25

6. CCDP...26 6.1 IGCC.26

7. ITS&S..32 7.1 7.2 INTRODUCTION.32 ITS&S WORK PROFILE..33

8. WRI...34 8.1 INTRODUCTION34 8.2 SERVICES35 8.3 FACILITIES36 9. PRESS AND DRUM SHOP...41
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1.BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LTD (BHEL)

1.1

OVERVIEW

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) is largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise in India in the energy related and infrastructure sectors today. BHELs Vision: BHELs vision is to become a world class engineering enterprise, committed to enhancing stakeholder value. BHEL manufactures over 180 products under 30 major groups. BHEL is equipped with 14 manufacturing divisions, 4 power sector regional centres, 8 service centres, 18 regional offices and a large number of project sites. BHELs products meet the international standards and retain accreditations from worlds quality certifying firms. In more than 45 years of its existence, BHEL has installed equipment for over 1, 37,000 MW of power generation, for utilities, captive and industrial users. BHEL supplied over 2, 00,000 MVA transformer capacity and sustained equipment operating in transmission and distribution network up to 400 kV-AC & DC. Over 25,000 motors with drive control system, more than 900 electrostatic precipitators and one million valves have been supplied by BHEL to Power projects, petro chemicals, refineries, Aluminium, Fertilizer, cement and paper plants. BHEL also supplied traction electrics and AC/DC locos to power over 12,000kms of railway network in India. The greatest strength of BHEL is its highly skilled and committed 44,000 employees. Every employee is given an equal opportunity to develop himself and improve his position. Continuous training and retraining, career planning, a positive work culture, participative style of management have engendered development of a committed and motivated work force leading to enhanced productivity and higher levels of quality.

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2. BHEL:TIRUCHIRAPALLI

2.1 INTRODUCTION The High Pressure Boiler Plant of the Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited was setup in 1963 for the manufacture of High Pressure Boilers. The plant achieved its full annual capacity to design manufacture and supply high pressure boiler equipment upto 4000 MW in 1984 with boiler unit ratings up to 500 MW. BHEL, Tiruchi has over the years seen formidable growth in capacity, capability, turnover and profitability. Product diversification has resulted in the development of new products enabling BHEL to absorb modern technologies. Such innovations result in continuous updation of manufacturing facilities to serve the customers in a more comprehensive way and for improving quality and productivity. BHEL, Tiruchi has added to its High Pressure Boiler Plant (HPBP), a Seamless Steel Tube Plant (SSTP) at Tiruchirappalli (adjacent to the HPBP), a Boiler Auxiliaries Plant (BAP) at Ranipet (in the state of Tamil Nadu), a Piping Centre (PC) at Chennai in Tamil Nadu and an Industrial Valve Plant (IVP) at Goindwal (in the Northern state of Punjab). HPBP and SSTP are spread over 2908 acres of land at Tiruchi and BAP over 1256 acres at Ranipet. HPBP and SSTP have a covered shop area of 2,50,000 square meters and BAP Ranipet has 47,000 square meters of covered shop area.

2.2 PRODUCT PROFILE UTILITY BOILERS For power generation applications, BHEL designs, engineers, manufactures, supplies, erects and commissions boilers of any rating upwards of 30MW.For higher capacities,
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BHEL also offers customers the option of Once-Through type steam generators in addition to conventional natural and controlled circulation types. INDUSTRIAL BOILERS BHEL supplies steam generators of rating up to 450 ton/hr for industrial applications to suit the requirements of industries... Fertiliser Petrochemical Refinery Steel Paper Other process industries

CFBC boilers BHEL manufactures state-of-the-art Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (CFBC) boilers in collaboration with Lurgis Lentjes Energietechnik Gmbh (LLB), Germany. LLB's rich experience and numerous installations worldwide BHEL CFBC boilers - Special design features Simplified fuel preparation equipment eliminating sophisticated and maintenance-prone pulverizing equipment.

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Recycling hot cyclone for effective separation of solid particles which are returned to the combustor. Special Fluidised Bed Heat Exchanger (FBHE) - patented design - for effective utilisation of Energy in hot recycled solid particles. Higher boiler efficiency even on part loads due to better burnability. Excellent operational flexibility - part load down to 25% MCR - and ideally suited for wide load fluctuations. Compact plant design. No heat transfer surfaces in erosion prone combustor zone. Independent Reheat temperature control.

AFBC BOILER BHEL is the pioneer in Atmospheric Fluidised Bed Combustion (AFBC) technology bubbling bed type - in India with a proven track record based on extensive in-house R&D for better utilization of existing energy sources. BHEL's AFBC Boilers - Unique Design Features Specially developed fuel feeders and feeding system to handle even fuels with high moisture content Unique and simple protection feature for bed swept surfaces Innovative oil-fired start-up system, relatively free from manual intervention which ensures trouble free unit start up Simpler operation Versatility in application
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He RECOVERY STEAM GENERATORS Technology Highlights World-class technology High heat recovery efficiency Optimised design Modular construction Environment friendly

ADVANCE TECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS Advanced Technology Products Department in BHEL, Tiruchy is having main business with the various institutions / organisations under Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India viz. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL), Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Reasearch (IGCAR), Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), Heavy Water Board, etc. Advanced Technology Products Department in BHEL, Tiruchy is having main business with the various institutions /organisations under Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India viz. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL), Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Reasearch (IGCAR), Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), Heavy Water Board, etc.

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3. SEAMLESS STEEL TUBE PLANT

The BHEL Seamless Steel Tube Plant (BHEL SSTP) was set up in 1979, with the equipment supplied by M/s Mannesmann Demag Meer of Germany, the world leader in this field.

BHEL SSTP manufactures Seamless Steel Tubes of world standards, catering to the needs of a wide spectrum of customers from power stations, petrochemicals, oil & gas exploration, automobiles, refineries, sugar industries, textiles, etc.

BHEL SSTP has most advanced facilities for the manufacture of seamless steel tubes and pipes both hot-finished and cold-drawn-in carbon and low alloy steel grades. BHEL SSTP offers seamless steel tubes and pipes in a wide range of sizes with outer diameter ranging from 19mm to 133mm and wall thickness from 2mm to 12.5mm.

An additional range of specialized applications...

BHEL SSTP also has advanced facilities for the manufacture of import substitute spiral finned tubes which have extended surface area designed for maximum heat recovery.

The plant has also developed the manufacture of rifled tubes. BHELs High Pressure Boiler Plant manufacture studded pipes.

Towards ever shorter delivery periods BHEL SSTP stocks various grades of raw materials to meet short delivery periods.

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Meeting International Specifications

At present, BHEL SSTP manufactures Seamless Steel Tubes and Pipes to the Following Specifications:

ASME SA53,106,179,192,209,210,213,333,334,335 BS 3059 DIN 2391 GOST API (Line pipes) Seamless steel tubes and pipes can be supplied in random or fixed lengths. Edge preparation is also done if it is required by the customer. BHEL-SSTP also ensures adherence to the respective standards and cater to specific customer requirements.

A WIDE RANGE OF APPLICATIONS

BHEL Seamless steel tubes are extensively used in power stations, marine boilers, refineries and for oil & gas exploration applications besides industries such as petrochemicals, fertilizers, textiles, automobiles, paper, sugar, etc.

BHEL Seamless cold drawn low-carbon-steel heat exchanger tubes are used for a variety of heat transfer applications.

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SEAMLESS STEEL TUBES AND PIPES (APPLICABLE SPECIFICATIONS)

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Specification ASME SA 106

Grade A,B,C

Title Seamless carbon steel pipes for high temperature services

SA 179

Seamless cold drawn low carbon steel heat exchanger and condenser tubes

SA 192

Seamless carbon steel boiler tubes for high pressure service.

SA210

A1,C

Seamless medium carbon steel boiler and super heater tubes.

SA209

T1

Seamless carbon-molybdenum alloy steel boiler and super heater tubes.

SA213

T2, T5, T11,T12,T22

Seamless ferritic and austenitic alloy steel boiler, super heater and heat exchanger tubes. Seamless and welded steel tubes for low temperature applications.

SA333

1,6

SA334

1,6

Seamless and welded carbon alloy steel tubes for low temperature applications.

SA335

P1,P2, P5,P11, P12, P22

Seamless ferritic alloy steel pipes for high temperature applications.

BS 3059

320,360, 440,660,622

Steel boiler and super heater tubes.

DIN 2391

ST35,ST45, ST53

Seamless precision steel tubes.

GOST

20,12xIM

Seamless steel pipes for stream boilers.

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API 5L

A,B,X42,X46, X52

Line pipes

Length : Random lengths ranging from 4 to 12 meters. Fixed lengths can also be supplied on specific request. Ends : Square cut or beveled as per standards/customers requirements.

SPIRAL FINNED TUBES (RANGE OF MANUFACTURE) WELD Material for Tube/Fin High Frequency Resistance Weld Carbon steel, Alloy steel, Stainless steel (Any combination) Fin Types D Diameter t- Wall Thickness Fin thickness H Fin height P-Fin pitch Solid fins/Serrated fins 19.1 mm to 114.3mm 2.4mm to 9.5mm 1.0 mm to 2.0 mm 12.5mm to 25.0 mm 40 to 280 per meter

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L1-Length (Total) L2- Length(Finned)

3000 mm to 20000 mm 2500mm to 19500 mm

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4. TUBULAR PRODUCTS SHOP

4.1 INTRODUCTION The tubular shop is one of the strong-holds of the production in BHEL Trichy. Its contribution, among others, has ensured that around of the power generated in India is backed by BHEL products. 4.2 PRODUCTION: This plant produces the tubes which are to be used in the boilers for converting water into steam by using the heat energy available in its environment inside the boiler. There are different types of tubes produced here of various diameters, lengths, shapes, etc. Based on the operating conditions in the tube w.r.t different phases the tubing system is divided into three different types. Economizer: Water from the pump enters the boiler and sensible heat addition takes place here. Water is converted into saturated liquid. For this purpose, coil is an appropriate structure. Water-wall Tubes: From the economizer, water moves to the drum which separates steam and water. Water goes into the water-wall, which acquires heat from the furnace and rises the steam into the drum. The structure is in form of panels. Super-heater: The steam isolated from the drum is passed into the different super-heater coils for sensible heat addition to required temperature. Also the tubing system varies as per the requirements at the worksite. This requires the production of various types of tubes like Panels: Tubes running in parallel connected by fins. Two types: Fusion Welded Panels (FWP) or Flat Fin Welded Panels (FFWP)

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Coils: A number of tubing components are in the form of coils, viz. economizer coils, Low Temperature Super-Heaters (LTSH), Platen Super-Heaters, Final SuperHeaters, and Re-Heaters.

Connecting tubes produced may be Upper Connecting Tubes, Lower Connecting Tubes, etc. The Tubes produced here are hollow cylinders with length much

greater than diameter, and bore not more than 76.1 mm, that which involves in heat as well as mass transfer, as per ASME definitions. Tubes are used in Boilers for converting water into steam. The Tubular Products Shop of BHEL, Trichy, uses Carbon Steel (SA210A1, SA191, and SA106GRB), Low Alloy Steel, High Alloy Steel, and Stainless Steel for the manufacturing of tubing components. It imports ready-made tubes of the materials T92 (from Germany) and P23 (from Japan) for production of 660 and 800 MW boilers, as the Seamless Steel Tube Plant is not capable of manufacturing tubes from these materials. Also the production here includes various types of processes Edge Preparation: The process is called Automatic Tube Cutting and Edge Preparation (ATCEP). Annually, 465,000 ends are prepared. Straight Tube Butt welding: (STB) involves welding of 180,000 joints, annually. Roto-blast: This is a process before longitudinal welding is performed to remove the surface coatings of tubes, and the scale is 1,185,000 pass meters. The annual production of the tubular plant is nearly 40,000 tones with each 500 MW boiler consists of 2,777 tones of tubes.

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SAFETY As BHEL is an ISO authorized company, the production process here in the tubular plant are governed by the environmental and health management standards. Other regulations in the production include ASME (American Society for Mechanical Engineers) and IBR (Indian Boiler Regulation). Because of BHELs huge domination over the Power-Generation Market, the Tubular Shop is reported to have enough orders (~Rs. 22,000 Cr.) to last three years of production. It has a customer base of Indian as well as foreign institutions. Its foreign customers include Libya, Sudan, Malaysia and Egypt among others.

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5. VALVES DEPARTMENT 5.1 MANUFACTURING FACILITIES 20,000 SQ.M Area of covered Manufacturing Shops with state of art CNC machine and general purpose machine. Dedicated hydraulic testing stations with capacities upto 15000 psi Steam and air testing facilities for safety and safety relief valves Supported by well equipped analytical, metallurgical and non destructive examination facilities. Quality assurance services are backed by a team of qualified scientists equipped with sophisticated instruments like spectroscopes, high

magnification microscopes, X-ray diffraction strain gauges and fatigue and creep testing machines. Non destructive testing facilities use x-rays up to 400 KV and Isotopes up to 800 curies and magnetic particle inspection is by most sensitive wet method. Precision gauges, tools and instruments are calibrated at BHEL's Nationally accredited calibration centre. Well trained and experienced man power of 1250 employees. BHEL High pressure cast steel valves and Quick closing non return valves are manufactured with technology from TOA valve company (Japan), Forged steel Valves, safety, safety relief and Y-type valves with technology from Dresser Industries Inc-(USA), Oilfield equipment with technology from KVaerner National (USA), HP-LP Bypass Systems with technology from Sulzer Thermtec (Switzerland) and soot blowers with technology from Copes Vulcan (USA).

5.2 PRODUCTS Gate, Globe & Non-Return Valves 1. Forged Steel Valves
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2. Cast Steel Bolted Bonnet Valves 3. Cast Steel high pressure valves (Oil Field equipment) Oil Field Equipments 1. Well Heads and X-mas trees 2. Full Bore Valves Safety Valves Safety Relief Valves Electrical Relief Valves Quick Closing Non-Return Valves Cold re heat line non return Valves HP & LP By-Pass System Soot Blowers 1. Long retractable soot blower 2. Wall deslagger 3. Rotary soot Blower 4. Furnace Temperature probe Silencers (Steam Vent & ejector type) Other Products 1. Direct Water level gauge 2. Reheater Isolating device

5.3 SERVICES Specially trained and experienced service team to service Valves and allied equipment at Power Plants Process Plants Onshore and Offshore Platforms.

Specialized tools developed for

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Insitute repair of seats and seat rings in Gate, Globe, Check, Safety and Safety Relief valves.

Services Include Refurbishing of Seat surfaces Servicing of Jammed Valves Setting of Actuators

5.4 CUSTOMERS INTERNATIONAL TOA Valve Co., Dresser Ind.Inc., Alstom Power Tyco Flow Control Yarway Corporation PT Sarana Adikariya Utama PT South Pacific Vis DOMESTIC Petrochemicals Sugar Plants Neyveli Lignite Corporation Cement Plants Japan USA USA USA USA

Indonesia Indonesia

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Paper and Pulp Industries Aluminium Plants BPCL Nuclear Power Corporation Reliance Industries Limited

6. COMBINED CYCLE DEMONSTRATION PLANT 6.1 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle [IGCC] What is an IGCC power plant? An Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) power plant combines a gasification system with a modern, highly efficient combined cycle electric power system (consisting of one or more gas turbines integrated with a steam turbine). IGCC power plants are successfully operating worldwide and have been operating commercially in Indiana and Florida for more than a decade. Clean syngas is combusted in high efficiency gas turbines to produce electricity. The excess heat from the gasification reaction is then captured, converted into steam, and sent to a steam turbine to produce additional electricity. The gas turbines can be operated on a backup fuel such as natural gas during periods of scheduled gasifier maintenance or can co-fire the backup fuel to compensate for any shortfall in syngas production.

Two Cycles involved in the IGCC Combined cycle process combines two thermodynamic cycles namely Rankine

cycle and Brayton cycle

a) Rankine cycle: The Rankine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle used to generate electricity in many power stations, and is the real-world approach to the Carnot cycle. Superheated steam is generated in a boiler, and then expanded in a steam turbine. The steam turbine drives a generator, to convert the work into electricity. The remaining steam is then condensed
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and recycled as feed-water to the boiler. A disadvantage of using the water-steam mixture is that superheated steam has to be used; otherwise the moisture content after expansion might be too high, which would erode the turbine blades. This cycle generates about 80% of all electric power used throughout the world.

Physical layout of four main devices used in Rankine cycle

Ts diagram of a typical Rankine cycle operating between pressures of 0.06bar and 50bar b) Brayton cycle: The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that describes the workings of the gas turbine engine, basis of the jet engine and others. It is named after George Brayton , the American engineer who developed it, although it was originally proposed and

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patented by Englishman John Barber in 1791. It is also sometimes known as the Joule cycle A Brayton-type engine consists of three components:

A gas compressor A mixing chamber An expander

Gas turbines IGCC In IGCC where power generation is the focus the clean syngas is

combusted (burned) in high efficiency gas turbines to generate electricity with very low emissions. The turbines used in these plants are derivatives of proven, natural gas combined-cycle turbines that have been specially adapted for use with syngas. For IGCC plants that include carbon capture, the gas turbines must be able to operate on syngas with higher levels of hydrogen. Although modern state-of the- art gas turbines are commercially ready for this higher hydrogen syngas, work is on-going in the United States to develop the next generation of even more efficient gas turbines ready for carbon capture-based IGCC.

Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) IGCC

Hot gas from each gas turbine in an IGCC plant will exhaust into a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). The HRSG captures heat in the hot exhaust from the gas turbines and uses it to generate additional steam that is used to make more power in the steam turbine portion of the combined-cycle unit.

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Steam turbines IGCC

In most IGCC plant designs, steam recovered from the gasification process is superheated in the HRSG to increase overall efficiency output of the steam turbines, hence the name Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle. This IGCC combination, which includes a gasification plant, two types of turbine generators (gas and steam), and the HRSG is clean and efficient producing NOx levels less than 0.06lb per MMBtu (coal input basis) and combined cycle efficiencies exceeding 65% when process steam integrated from the gasification plant is included. Another example of the integrated design in the fully integrated IGCC is the IGCC gas turbine, which can provide a portion of the compressed air to the oxygen plant. This reduces the capital cost of the compressors while also decreasing the amount of power required to operate the oxygen plant. Additionally, gas turbines use nitrogen from the oxygen plant to reduce combustion NOx as well as increase power output.

Advantages of IGCC

According to the Environmental Protection Agency, the higher thermodynamic efficiency of the IGCC cycle minimizes CO2 emissions relative to other technologies IGCC plants offer todays least-cost alternative for capturing CO2 from a coalbased power plant. In addition, IGCC will experience less of an energy penalty than other technologies if carbon capture is required. While CO2 capture and sequestration will increase the cost of all forms of power generation, an IGCC plant can capture and compress CO2 at one half the cost of a traditional pulverized coal plant.

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 Other gasification based options, including production of motor fuels, chemicals, fertilizers or hydrogen, to name a few, have even lower carbon capture and compression costs. This will provide a significant economic and environmental benefit in a carbon constrained world.

IGCC BHELs approach

1. Fixed Bed Gasifier 6.2 MWe IGCC commissioned in 1989 Fed about 1,000,000 units of power to TNEB grid

Limitations of fixed bed gasification It consists of internal moving parts with higher degree of mechanical complexity for pressurized operation Lowest capacity per square meter of gasifier area Sized coal above 6mm is required and fines may be deposited off or handled separately too much variation in size , will lead to channelling , clinkering and incomplete gasification of bigger sizes The product gas contained tar, oil, phenols and coal fines. More complicated clean up system is required to obtain cold clean gas. Low temperature precludes heat recovery. Control of temperature below ash fusion point is required to avoid clinkering High start up time is required

2. Fluidized Bed Gasifier 18 TPD PFBG - BHEL Corp. R&D, Hyderabad, commision, 1993 150 TPD PFBG - BHEL CCDP, Tiruchy, commission 1997 Series of trial operations being conducted since 1997 IGCC mode power generation demonstrated march /june .1998

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Advantages of Fluidized Bed Gasifier Higher unit capacity No tar or oil formation and easy gas cleaning No liquid effluent formation ability to accept finer coals Best suited for high ash indian coals

3. BHEL ,Trichy PFBG IGCC Demo power plant After the successful development of moving bed gasifier technology under the CCDP programme, BHEL embarked on pressurised bed gasification (PFBG) technology. Recognizing the opportunity to generate electricity in an efficient and environment friendly manner, ICICI Indias leading financial institution supported the PFBG Project through the programme for Accelerated Commercial Energy Research (PACER) under the US-AID programme. Utilizing all the infrastructural facilities created by BHEL under its CCDP programme, Asias first IGCC plant, the 150 tonnes per day pressurised fluidized bed gasification system was designed, fabricated, erected and commissioned indigenously. The fluidized-bed gasifier is a refractory-lined vessel. The air and steam mixture and coal are introduced through a conical distributor located at the bottom of the gasifier. The entrained ash and unburnt carbon particles are separated by the cyclones in series. The carbon recycle is effected from cyclones using coal gas. The coal gas at the exit of the third cyclone is cooled from 900 0C to 5400C in heat recovery boiler (HRB). The gas is further cooled to 3700C in the gas cooler while superheating steam is utilized in the gasification process and the rest expands in the steam turbine to generate about 2.2MWe. The gas is further processed through the downstream in the gas clearing system of the moving bed gasifier and admitted to the gas turbine at 900C to generate 4.0 MWe.

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A portion of the clean gas is compressed in the gas booster and is utilised for fly-ash recycle in the cyclones and for the pressurization of fly-ash locks and HRB lock.

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7. INFORMATION TECHNOLOOGY AND SERVICES (ITS&S)

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The IT Solutions and Services department of BHEL, Trichy, commonly known as just ITSS, plays a vital role in the smooth functioning of the whole organization. Housed in the centre of the BHEL campus, it provides services which are essential in both the manufacturing arm of BHEL as well as its day to day functioning.

ITS&S focuses on providing services to meet the current needs of the organization as well as devising new solutions for problems in its current and future projects, in order to optimize the undertaken production work.

Its work can be summarized as follows:

- Developmental

Plant Modeling

Web based Documentation Management System

Engineering Automation / Cycle time reduction

- Services

Updating and Maintaining Central Archives

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O&M Manual Preparation

Standards

7.2 ITS&S Work Profile: An Outline 1) Plant Modelling The three dimensional designing of power plants and processes is known as plant modelling. It can be used to design any type of plant, from petrochemical plants, offshore platforms, chemical and pharmaceutical plants, to power plants, waste water treatment plants and cogeneration facilities. It has many advantages, like being able to conduct strength and temperature analysis on each component, or on the whole plant.

1.1)

Need for Plant Modeling

Plant modeling of a power plant gives the visual representation of a power plant and also helps to detect any interferences, clashes etc; before any plant gets erected.

It reduces the total cost incurred as well as the total cycle time.

1.2)

Software used by BHEL for Plant Modeling

PDS (Plant Design System) Used earlier PDMS (Plant Design Management System) Used Now

PDMS An Overview: PDMS (Plant Design Management System) is a 3-D plant modeling software package supplied by AVEVA Inc.(a UK based software company).

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It can be used to create three dimensional plant and equipment models, extract isometric drawings and perform design interference checks and detect equipment clashes.

The major disciplines of PDMS are :-

a) Equipment Modeling b) Pipe Routing c) Structural Support Modeling d) HVAC modeling

2) Systems Work undertaken by ITS&S

Dolphin Web-based AMS Reliable Storage of Drawings, Search on ANY Drawing attribute, Mail notifications, Info Desk, PDF Download 8.75 Lacs Drawing Images of FB, FBC&HRSG, Valves, ATP are managed through Dolphin. [Apart from this All the Old GMS Sheets numbering over 70 lakh have been scanned providing instant access to past records]

O&M Management System A comprehensive system to Input, Index, Monitor, Compile andPrint O&M Manuals

e-Filer, i-Vault Features Secure File storage in SAN (on both primary andsecondary sites)

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 Titles, Key words and other attributes stored in secure database with individual user accounts and authentication

Quest Engineering Information Portal The KM content gateway for Engineering with access to Standards, Other Engineering Documents, Technical Collaboration content, Tools for KM Circle generated content and KM Administration

Library Digitization initiatives 10,500 technical journal articles have been digitized and stored in electronic form via Journal Management System with easy search capability. About 1100 reports of different departments have been digitized and stored in Ivault for online reference. Implementation of E-filer system has led to complete elimination of hardcopy office correspondance.

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8. WELDING RESEARCH INSTITUTE (WRI) 8.1 INTRODUCTION Welding Research Institute (WRI) was established in November 1975 by Government of India with UNIDO and UNDP assistance under the management of

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited , Tiruchirappalli , India. WRI has been constantly interacting with world renowned institutions for updating the knowledge base on latest technologies and assimilating experience. This Institute has been established to cater to the welding needs of the Indian welding industries and for contributing to the growth of welding and allied technologies. The major activities of the Institute include Research and Developement on various welding processes and technologies Metallurgical investigations Dissemination of knowledge in welding Consultancy services

The Institute has the following recognitions to its credit Recognized by Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for testing of welding electrodes Authorised by Indian Boiler Board (IBR) for training and certification of welders Recognized centre for research studies by IIT - Chennai, IISc, Bangalore, NITTiruchirappalli and PSG - Coimbaotre. 8.2 SERVICES Welding Research Institute, has successfully completed number of consultancy projects for various customers, in the field of equipment development, consumable & power source testing, process & technology development, metallurgical investigation, repair and reclamation, distortion control, structural integrity analysis, remnant life
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estimation, condition assessment etc. About 2300 consultancy services have been completed for 120 organisations covering Heavy Engineering, Power, Petro-Chemical, Transport, Metal Processing, Defence, Space, Oil, Ship Welding equipment, Electronics industries etc. Building, Consumable &

Annual Consultancy Contract Scheme(ACCS) Privileged Industrial Member Enterprise(PRIME)

8.3 FACILITIES

WRI is well equipped with welding and testing facilities under one roof. Some of the unique facilities are listed below:

Testing Facilities 1. Mechanical Testing Universal Testing Machine - 600kN Micro hardness tester 50gm1 kg load Impact Tester - 406 Joules Pellini drop weight tester41 kgs Instron 8502 servo hydraulic - 250 kN

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Instron 1603 EMR type - 100 kN Instron 1276 servo hydraulic - 1000 kN

2. Metallurgical Testing Scanning Electron Microscope 200,000 X Light Optical Microscopes 1600 X Differential Interference Contrast microscope 1000 X In-situ metallographic Polishing kit

3. Stress Analysis X-ray Stress Analyser (AST-X2001) Multipoint Digital Strain Meter RS-200 Milling Guide for Residual Stress Measurement FEM software ANSYS 5.0

4. Non Destructive Testing Ultrasonic Test Equipment - upto 1 dB In-situ Magnetic Particle Testing Radiographic test equipment 400 kV Gamma ray test

Welding Facilities 1.Fusion Welding Solid state NdYAG Laser welding Machine-2kW Surface Tension Transfer MAG welder 400 A Synergic MIG welding 500 A Chamber for Titanium welding f 1200 mm Tandem submerged Arc welder 1200 A Time Twin welding equipment
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2. Solid Phase Welding, Surfacing & Others Friction welder -15 tonnes Microjoining for <1mm sheets Resistance Spot Welding Resistance Projection Welding Resistance Seam welder for 2 mm sheets Flash Butt Welding

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9. PRESS SHOP AND DRUM SHOP The BHEL Trichy has equipped all its units with cutting edge technology and sophisticated machines to facilitate its manufacturing needs. It has in its arsenal an 8000 ton Hydraulic press, a Four Roll Plate Bending Machine and a large capacity Induction Pipe Bending Machine to name a few. It has also installed the plants with state-of-the-art analytical, mechanical and non-destructive testing facilities to ensure the delivery of products of the finest quality. The various processes in press and drum shop are: SHELL FORMATION: At first plates are received from the stores. They are verified for the material specification and are subjected to Shear UT. Plates are then marked for cutting to the required dimensions considering the test plates for Long seam and cirseam. Before gas cutting the plates are heated to a temperature of 150 deg (Preheating). Gas cut edges is cleaned and the plates are loaded to the furnace for heating it to a temperature of 870900 deg. This is done such that ROH is 150 deg /hr, soaking it for 200 minutes and cooling it by open air. This shell plates are transferred to 8000 T press where it pressed to form a half shell. Special care is taken that the forming process is done above 620 deg. If the pressing is done below 620 deg C then Inter stage heat treatment is done. Then the pressed plates are subjected to shot blasting for surface finish. And then half shell formed is cold calibrated as per dimensions. After gas cutting the half shells are sent to Drum shop for long seam EP preparation and further processes. Then with row of burners along the length preheating to 150 deg C is done for tack welding the fit ups, start up and test plates. Long seam joint is welded from inside by FCAW with CO2 as shielding gas manually and then surface is cleaned and ground. Straps from outside are removed and preheating is done for outside welding to the temperature of 150 deg C. SAW (Submerged Arc Welding) is the process of welding from the outside and is done as per the WPS.Inspection is carried out on the joints welded and MT, RT and UT are conducted.
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The shell thus formed is Edge prepared on both the ends. Edge prepared ends is inspected for compliance with the drawing. The two closed shells formed are joined by cir seam welding for which internal welding is done by SMAW and outer side is done by SMAW R + 2 mm for after gouging for effective lip matching and then remaining portion by SAW process. All the welding processes are accompanied by preheating to the temperature of 150 deg C. DISHED END FORMATION: Raw material for dished ends are received from stores and verified for material spec, melt no. and plate no. for identification purpose. Marking for cutting the plan as per drawing is done and verified. Marked portion is cut using gas cutting operation for which the plate marked portion is preheated to 150 deg C. The gas cut portion is cleaned and ground. The locater hole marking at the center of the blank is carried out and accordingly drilling is done in steps. Then the plates are loaded into the furnace with thermocouples and care is taken such that direct flame impingement is avoided. The heating of plate is done to a temperature of 870-900 deg C with ROH at 150 de C/Hr if the plate thickness is above 100 mm else at the rate of 200 deg C/Hr. Soaking is done at rate of 1.25-mts/mm thickness of plate with the cooling medium being air. Heated plate is then pressed to the shape as dimensions in the drawing using matching bullet and tool. Thus formed plate is subjected to shot blasting and depressions if any are merged gradually to the base metal surface. Inspection is done for profile, thickness, diameter, circularity and then the identifications are transferred and punched. Manhole on both the dished ends is marked and pre-drilling for gas cutting is done. Preheating is done and the manhole is formed using gas-cutting process. CIR SEAM WELDING Preheating to 150 deg C is done and the tack welding of door components and relevant DE is done. Cleaning and grinding of weld is done and is subjected to MT. The door

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assembly is placed inside the drum before welding the last cir seam. Fitting and tack welding of cir seam joint is done after pre heating to 150 deg C. NOZZLE DRILLING AND ATTACHMENTS ON SHELL Pilot drilling is done for full throat nozzle openings. After pilot drilling operation the opening areas are preheated to 150 deg C for gas cutting the full throat opening. The gas cut portion is cleaned and ground and then subjected to MT and UT. Before tack welding the full throat nozzle with fit up on the shell, preheating to 150 deg c is done. After verifying the alignment, orientation and dimension, full throat welding is done as per WPS. STRESS RELIEVING: All the balance attachments are welded before SR. If any depressions are found then it is ground and merged smoothly. HYDRO TEST: Drum is filled with water with a temperature range of 21 to 46 deg C and is pressurized gradually to the pressure mentioned in the drawing (generally it is pressurized to 1.5 times the design pressure). This is maintained for 30 mts. Shroud hydro is conducted only for the shroud portion in case of 500MW boilers.

FINAL HANDING OVER: Drum is cleaned and is checked for free from foreign materials. Protective plastic caps for all nozzles and nipples are provided. Paint is applied as per painting scheme; axis and other important locations are marked. Authorized Inspectors seal is stamped. Handing over to shipping for shipping is done. 1. HEADERS

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The header is a manifold that forms the connection between the two pressure part systems. It acts as a mixing chamber, equalizing the temperature of the fluid. The header is basically a pipe suitably provided with inlet and outlet connections so that the flow in the system is uniform and as desired. Types of Headers: Header - both ends closed with hemispherical end cover Header both ends closed with flat end cover One end closed with h.s.e.c and other end open Headers with both ends open Header with tee at quarter points (or at center): In the micro level the headers may have the following components 1. Pipe 2. Tube 3. End Covers 4. Tees 5. Elbows 6. Support and lifting lugs 7. Hanger Rods & U Rods 8. Hand Hole Pipes 9. Lining and Insulation Attachments MANUFACTURING SEQUENCE OF HEADERS: 1) LAYOUT MARKING 2) EDGE PREPARATIO 3) SOCKET SEAT DRILLING 4) BUTT JOINT 5) STUBS & ATTACHMENTS 6) SR & FINAL INSPECTION

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THE BASIC DESIGN OF THE HEADER INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING STEPS 1. The basic parameters of the header have to be obtained from the piping and tubing list from the BPP. The basic configuration may be the length of the header pipe, diameter of the header, thickness, design temperature, pressure, etc., 2. The arrangement of the nipples around the header pipe has to be decided from the PPA drawing. 3. The header whether it is closed at one end/both the ends (with hemispherical or flat end cover) or open at one end/both the ends is also decided from the PPA drawing. 4. The other stubs that has to be given in the header for the vents and drain is decided from the water and steam scheme which includes all the fittings, valves and instrumentation from the Boiler Mountings section. 2. TUBES:

The nipples and the stubs those are present in the header, which has diameter less than 76.2mm falls under the category of Tubes. Other than that certain instrument inserts also falls under that category of tubes. 3. END COVERS: As discussed above, the closed headers may have end covers. The end covers are of two types: i. Hemispherical End Cover ii. Flat End Cover. Due to the uniform stress distribution the Hemispherical end cover is preferred mostly. In cases where there is a space limitation Flat end cover is preferred. 4. TEE PIECE:

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The header may be fitted with the tee piece, which may be used for the inlet or for the outlet purpose. The Tee piece is usually provided at the quarter points (i.e., the approximately at a distance of 0.25L from the ends, L = length of the header) assuming that the flow is equal.

5. ELBOW: The headers with elbow for the inlet or outlet will be considered as a pipe with a bend. The selection of the elbow is done from the standard drawing 2-03-000-00035 Formed Elbow - 90 (Raw Forming). The calculation is as explained in Tee selection.

PROJECTS COMPLETED Heat treatment of Steam Generator Component Establishment of solid phase welding technology for aluminium alloys Laser welding technology development for coated steels Application of weld sequence for distortion control in panels Development of laser and TIG welding technology for reheater spray control valve Arc welding power source evaluation system Development of a Lathe type Rotating Fixture for Welding Bifurcates Development Of Magnetically Rotating Arc Welding System For Welding Of Tubes
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Development Of High Performance Robot Welding System Using Time Twin Process Cold Wire Addition Process For Long Seam Butt-Joints Using Tandem Submerged Arc Welding Electro Gas Welding System Internal Deep Bore Stelliting Machine Low Pressure Plasma Spraying System Overlaying Machine for Bowl mill Rolls Automatic Tube Butt Welding Machine Twin wire CO2 welding Feedback controller for Resistance welding Transistorised Power Source Seam tracker for arc welding system Versatile All Position In-situ metallographic polishing Equipment (VAPINE) Narrow Gap Submerged Arc Welding Technology Applications of high energy density Electron Beam Welding Technology

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PART-B
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1.1 Types Of cyclone separators 1.2 Series and parallel cyclone arrangements 1.3 Uses of cyclone separator 1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of cyclone separator 2. Literature survey 2.1 Cyclone theory 2.2 Cyclone dimensions 3. Collection Efficiency 4. Cyclone design 4.1 Standard Cyclone dimensions 4.2 Calculation and analysis 5. Sensitivity analysis 5.1 Variation of efficiency with size range 5.2 Different input parameters 5.3 Graphical analysis 6. Conclusion

50 50 51 53 54 55 55 58 62 66 68 71 73 73 76 84 87

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7. References

88

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1. INTRODUCTION
Cyclonic separation is a method of removing particulates from an air, gas or water stream, without the use of filters, through vortex separation. Rotational effects and gravity are used to separate mixtures of solids and fluids.

A high speed rotating flow is established within a cylindrical or conical container called a cyclone. Air flows in a spiral pattern, beginning at the top (wide end) of the cyclone and ending at the bottom (narrow) end before exiting the cyclone in a straight stream through the center of the cyclone and out the top. Larger (denser) particles in the rotating stream have too much inertia to follow the tight curve of the stream and strike the outside wall, falling then to the bottom of the cyclone where they can be removed. In a conical system, as the rotating flow moves towards the narrow end of the cyclone the rotational radius of the stream is reduced, separating smaller and smaller particles. The cyclone geometry, together with flow rate, defines the cut point of the cyclone. This is the size of particle that will be removed from the stream with 50% efficiency. Particles larger than the cut point will be removed with a greater efficiency and smaller particles with a lower efficiency. 1.1 TYPES OF CYCLONE SEPARATORS: There are several types of cyclones used in different applications: 1. Vertical axis, cylindrical horizontal inlet, and axial discharges (reverse flow). 2. Vertical axis, non-cylindrical cyclone with horizontal inlet and vertical discharge. 3. Vertical axis, multi entry, and vertical discharge. 4. Vertical axis, horizontal entry, and downward discharge. 5. Axial entry and axial discharge. This report deals with the reverse flow cyclone separator with tangential entry and vortex finder. It is the simplest of all and hence easy to build. It is called the reverse flow cyclone because the gas-solid mixture enters the cyclone tangentially at its periphery, spirals around the barrel and then the gas reverses the flow and exits through a gas outlet tube also known as vortex finder or vortex tube at the top of
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the cyclone. The solids spiral down around the barrel of a cyclone at an angle of approximately 15 degrees and enter the cyclone cone attached to the bottom of the barrel. The solids exit the reverse flow cyclone at the bottom of the cyclone cone. In case of uniflow cyclone the gas-solids mixture enters the cyclone and spirals around the barrel and then gas exits the cyclone at the bottom in the centre of the uniflow cyclone. The solids also exit the uniflow cyclone at the bottom, but along the wall of the cyclone. A small amount of gas (generally 1-3% of the inlet gas flow) is also withdrawn with the solids to improve collection efficiency. The advantage of uniflow cyclone is that solids spend less time in uniflow cyclone than in a reverse flow cyclone. Over the decades many different reverse flow cyclone geometries have been tried to improve efficiency, prevent particle attrition, prevent erosion of the cyclone wall or prevent particle build-up on the cyclone surfaces. However there are few basic types that have emerged as a most popular over the years viz. tangential inlet, volute inlet cyclone and axial inlet cyclone. The axial inlet cyclone uses axial swirl vanes to impel the gas solids mixture into rotary centrifugal motion. In some cyclones the roof of the cyclone is angled downward in a helical fashion. In some cyclone with standard roofs, the solids that enter the cyclone do not move downward far enough by the time they traverse one revolution and then collide with the incoming solids. In some applications helical roofs are used to prevent the build-up of sticky material of the cyclone roof by forcing there incoming solids to rub against the top of the cyclone. 1.2 SERIES AND PARALLEL CYCLONE ARRANGEMENTS: 1.2.1 SERIES COMBINATION: A single cyclone can sometimes give sufficient gas-solid separation for a particular process or application. However, solids collection efficiency can usually be enhanced by placing cyclones in series. Cyclones in series are typically necessary for most processes to minimize particulate emission or to minimize the loss of expensive solid reactant or catalyst. Two cyclones in series are most common, but sometimes three cyclones are also used. Series cyclone can be very efficient. For
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example in fluidized catalytic cracking (FCC) regenerators, two stages of cyclones can give efficiencies of upto and even greater than 99.999%. Typically, first stage cyclones will have an inlet gas velocity less than that of second stage cyclone. the lower inlet velocity of first stage cyclones results in low particle attrition rates and lower wall erosion rates. After most of the solids are collected in the first stage, a higher velocity is generally used in the second stage cyclones to increase the centrifugal force on the solids and increase the collection efficiency. Erosion rates are generally lower in the second stage because of the vastly reduced flux of solids into the second stage cyclone. Sometimes it is better to use a single high efficiency cyclone than operate with two cyclones in series. This situation can occur when the first stage cyclone is very efficient and the solids flowing to the second stage cyclone are very small and cohesive. Cohesive solids are difficult to transfer in cyclone diplegs and may cause the solids to bridge momentarily or not fall at all. Second stage diplegs operating with trickle or flapper valves and cohesive solids are particularly sensitive to bridging. The inability to flow solids down the second stage diplegs causes the solids to pass straight through from the inlet to outlet, thus destroying cyclone efficiency. In addition, flow of gas up the diplegs of second stage cyclone diplegs can also be a major problem. If this gas flow is excessive during normal operation, the diplegs will not operate well, and erosion of the cyclone cone and diplegs trickle valve flapper plate may result. This problem occurs because the solids flux in the second stage diplegs is very low (of order upto 10-20 kg/sec-m2).for a dipleg density approximately 800 kg/m3, the velocity of solids in the dipleg is only about 0.025 m/sec for a flux in the dipleg of 20 kg/sec-m2. Gas can easily flow up the dipleg against this very low velocity. Conversely, in first stage cyclone diplegs where the solid flux may be as high as 750 kg/sec-m2, the solids velocity is so high (approx 0.94 m/sec at dipleg density of 800 kg/m3) that gas is carried down the dipleg with solids. Because of the recurring problems with the second stage cyclone diplegs, companies sometime choose to use a single high efficiency cyclone in place of two cyclone stages. Even though the overall efficiency using a single cyclone is slightly less than using two ,they find that this cyclone arrangement optimizes the operation
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of the process by minimizing the upsets and reducing downtime using a single high efficiency cyclone.

1.2.2 PARALLEL COMBINATION: Several small cyclones are placed in parallel when it is not possible to fit a single large cyclone into available height, or when extremely high centrifugal forces are required. It is difficult to ensure equal distribution of gas and solids into parallel cyclone. This can lead to cyclone inefficiencies .increasing pressure drop across cyclone will improve solids distribution but is not always sufficient to ensure equal solids flow in each cyclone. Typically when the number of parallel cyclones is less than 6 to 8, each cyclone will have individual inlet and outlet duct. However when number of cyclones exceeds this number, the generally have common inlet and outlet connection bins. This also prevents back flow into one or more cyclones and re entrainment of solids from the collection hopper back into one or more cyclone orbits. Placing a large number of cyclones in parallel in common bin can result in distribution problems because it will be easier for gases and solids to flow through the closest cyclone than one located some distance away from the inlet. Multiple inlets to the common vessel reduce this problem. Because of problems in the operation of small parallel cyclones, it is generally found that they result in less collection efficiency than that of single large cyclone processing amount of gas than solids.

1.3 USES OF CYCLONE SEPARATORS:

Large scale cyclones are used in sawmills to remove sawdust from extracted air. Cyclones are also used in oil refineries to separate oils and gases, and in the cement industry as components of kiln preheaters. Smaller cyclones are used to

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separate airborne particles for analysis. Some are small enough to be worn clipped to clothing and are used to separate respirable particles for later analysis. Analogous devices for separating particles or solids from liquids are

called hydrocyclones or hydroclones. These may be used to separate solid waste from water in wastewater and sewage treatment. In addition to its use in power plant engineering cyclones have a variety of applications as pre-cleaners. They serve an important purpose as precleaners for more expensive final control devices such as fabric filters or electrostatic precipitators. In addition to use for pollution control work, cyclones are used in many process applications, for example, they are used for recovering and recycling food products and process materials such as catalysts. 1.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CYCLONE SEPARATORS:

Advantages of cyclones are:

Low capital cost Ability to operate at high temperatures Low maintenance requirements because there are no moving parts.

Disadvantages of cyclones are:

Low collection efficiencies (especially for very small particles) Cyclones used almost exclusively for particles > 5 m. High operating costs (owing to power required to overcome pressure drop).

The section of literature survey gives a detailed analysis of the working principle of the cyclone separators. It also gives the important literature derivation using elementary physics. The section of design gives the detailed explanation of all the parameters involved in the design of a single high efficiency cyclone separator. It also gives an idea of change in cyclone efficiency with a slight change in one of the parameter.
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The section of sensitivity analysis offers the explanation on the change in cyclone efficiency with variation in parameters using graphs. It also gives a complete analysis of the design proposed by us, its merits and uses. Finally the last section concludes the report.

2. LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 CYCLONE THEORY Steady state As the cyclone is essentially a two phase particle-fluid system, fluid mechanics and particle transport equations can be used to describe the behavior of a cyclone. The air in a cyclone is initially introduced tangentially into the cyclone with an inlet velocity Vin. Assuming that the particle is spherical, a simple analysis to calculate critical separation particle sizes can be established. Given that the fluid velocity is moving in a spiral the gas velocity can be broken into two component velocities, a tangential component, Vt, and a radial velocity component Vr. Assuming Stokes' law, the drag force on any particle in this inlet stream is therefore given by the following equation: Fd = 6rpVr. If one considers an isolated particle circling in the upper cylindrical component of the cyclone at a rotational radius of r from the cyclone's central axis, the particle is therefore subjected to centrifugal, drag and buoyant forces. The centrifugal component is given by:

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The buoyant force component is obtained by the difference between the particle and fluid densities, p and f respectively:

The force balance can be created by summing the forces together

This rate is controlled by the diameter of the particle's orbit around the central axis of the cyclone. A particle in the cyclonic flow will move towards either the wall of the cyclone, or the central axis of the cyclone until the drag, buoyant and centrifugal forces are balanced. Assuming that the system has reached steady state, the particles will assume a characteristic radius dependent upon the force balance. Heavier, denser particles will assume a solid flow at some larger radius than light particles. The steady state balance assumes that for all particles, the forces are equated, hence: Fd + Fc + Fb = 0 Which expands to:

This can be expressed by rearranging the above in terms of the particle radius. The particle radius as a function of cyclonic radius, fluid density and fluid tangential and rotational velocities can then be found to be:

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Experimentally it is found that the velocity component of rotational flow is proportional to r2, therefore:

This means that the established feed velocity controls the vortex rate inside the cyclone, and the velocity at an arbitrary radius is therefore:

Subsequently, given a value for Vt, possibly based upon the injection angle, and a cutoff radius, a characteristic particle filtering radius can be estimated, above which particles will be removed from the gas stream.

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2.2 CYCLONE DIMENSIONS

De

S h

2.2.1 Cyclone inlet design: The design of cyclone inlet can greatly affect cyclone performance. It is generally desired to have the width of the inlet (b) be as narrow as possible so that the entering solids will be as close as possible to the cyclone wall where they can be collected. However, narrow inlet widths requires that the height of the inlet (a) be very long in order to give a given inlet area required for the desired inlet gas velocities. Therefore a
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balanced between narrow inlet width and the length of the inlet height has to be made. Typically, low loading cyclones (with inlet loadings less than approximately 2-5kg/m3) have height to width ratios (a: b) of between 2.5 and 3.5. For high loading cyclones, this inlet aspect ratio can be increased to as high as 7 or so with the correct design. Such high inlet aspect ratios require that the cyclone barrel length increase substantially. A common cyclone inlet is a rectangular tangential inlet with a constant area along its length. This type of inlet is satisfactory for many cyclones, especially those operating at low solids loading. 2.2.2 Gas outlet tube: To prevent solids from the cyclone inlet from bypassing directly into the outlet of the cyclone, a tube of same diameter as the gas outlet is extended into the cyclone to a level equal to or below the bottom of the solids inlet. This prevents solids from by passing directly into the outlet of the cyclone. This tube is called as gas outlet tube (or vortex finder or vortex tube). The gas outlet tube does increase the efficiency of a low loading cyclone relative to the cyclone that does not have a gas outlet tube. However, cyclone designers use a longer gas outlet tube than is required. For low loadings the length of the gas outlet tube doesnt have to be greater than the height of the solids inlet. For high loadings the optimum gas outlet tube length has to be less than the height of the solids inlet. The optimum gas outlet tube length depends upon the gas velocity and solids loading into the cyclone. Decreasing the diameter of the gas outlet tube generally increases the efficiency of the cyclone. This is due to increasing the length and rotating the velocity of the vortex below the gas outlet tube. However, if the cyclone is not long enough to contain the increased vortex length and it extends too close to the solids flowing on the wall of the cone, then cyclone efficiency will decrease as the vortex plucks off solids from the wall of the cone, so it is imperative that the cyclone have a sufficient length before reducing the diameter of the gas outlet tube.

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2.2.3 Inlet gas velocity: The inlet gas velocity for cyclones can range from a low of approximately 10 m/s to a high of 40 m/s. the gas velocity used depends upon the application of the cyclone. In second stage cyclone the inlet gas velocity is generally higher than that of the first stage. In second stage cyclones the loading is low and an increased in the gas velocity leading to a higher centrifugal force is required for high separation efficiencies. Also loading in the second stage cyclone is so low that erosion and attrition will be relatively small, so high velocities can be utilized. High cyclone inlet gas velocities also result in very high pressure drops. Because the pressure drop across the cyclone is proportional to square of the inlet gas velocity. Lowering the inlet gas velocity can significantly reduce the pressure drop. This will lead to reduced energy expenditures and will also reduce the length of the cyclone dipleg required for sealing the cyclones. 2.2.4 Cyclone length: As discussed earlier the cyclone length should be great enough to contain the vortex below the gas outlet tube. It is generally advisable to have the cyclone somewhat longer than required so that modifications to the gas outlet tube can be made if required. Either the barrel or the cone can be increased in length to contain the vortex. However, cyclone barrels cant be made too long. If the barrel is too long the rotating spirals of the solids along the wall can lose its momentum. When this happens, the solids along the wall can be re-entrained into the rotating gas in the barrel and cyclone efficiency will be reduced. The study of the effect of cyclone length on cyclone efficiency showed that efficiency increases with length. However after a certain length, efficiency decreased. They reported that cyclone efficiency suddenly decreased after a certain cyclone length, which in their cyclone was at a length-to-diameter ratio of 5.65 (although many researchers employ this length-to-diameter ratio as a correlating parameter to make the length parameter dimensionless, it is likely that it is the actual length of the cyclone that is important). the probable reason for the sudden decrease in cyclone efficiency
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was the central vortex touching and turning on the cyclone cone. When this occurred, the efficiency collapsed and caused increased solids re-entrainment. Cyclone pressure drop decreased with increasing cyclone length. This probably occurs for the same reason that cyclone pressure drop decreases with increasing cyclone loading. For long cyclones, the increased length of the cyclone wall results in a longer path for the gas to travel. This causes more resistance to the flow of the gas in the cyclone (much as a longer pipe produces more resistance to gas flow than a shorter pipe) that results in reducing the tangential velocity in the cyclone and therefore the cyclone pressure drop.

2.2.5 Cyclone wall roughness: Rough cyclone walls reduce cyclone efficiency and decrease the pressure drop in a cyclone. In high-temperature processes, cyclones are often lined with refractory both to minimize heat loss and to protect the metal surfaces from abrasion. These refractor surfaces are not as smooth as metal, but after a few days of operation, the refractory becomes smoother because of the abrasive action of the solids. 2.2.6 Cyclone diameter: In theory, a smaller diameter cyclone should be able to collect smaller particles because it can develop a higher centrifugal force. However, using smaller cyclones generally means that many have to be used in parallel to accommodate large gas flows. The problem with parallel cyclones is that it is difficult to get even distribution of solids into all of the cyclones. If maldistribution occurs, this can cause inefficiencies that can negate the natural advantage of the smaller cyclones. Cyclone diameters can be very large. Perhaps the largest cyclones are those used in circulating fluidized bed combustors, where cyclone diameters approach 10 meters. Large diameter cyclones also result in very long cyclones, and so these large-diameter long-length cyclones are really not feasible as internal cyclones in fluidized beds (they make the vessel too tall). When using small cyclones in pilot or demonstration plants, particle bouncing or rebounding from the wall can be a problem. Because the cyclones are small, particles
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can bounce off the cyclone wall into the vortex and be carried out the cyclone exit. This is especially true for plastic particles that can bounce large distances after striking a wall. Therefore, for very small cyclones, it is recommended that the cyclone diameters be increased over the typical diameter dimensions to counter this effect. As an example, increasing the diameter of a 150 mm diameter laboratory cyclone to 300 mm in diameter should solve the most egregious bouncing problems. For particles that do not bounce as much as plastic, smaller diameter increases can be made.

3. COLLECTION EFFICIENCY
A very simple model can be used to determine the effects of both cyclone design and operation on collection efficiency. In this model, gas spins through a number N of revolutions in the outer vortex. The value of N can be approximated as the sum of revolutions inside the body and inside the cone: N=1/H (Lb+ Lc/2)

Where N = number of turns inside the device (no units) H = height of inlet duct (m or ft) Lb = length of cyclone body (m or ft) Lc = length (vertical) of cyclone cone (m or ft). Solving for particle diameter, we obtain
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Dp = [9 W / N Vi (p- a)] 0.5

It is worth noting that in this expression, Dp is the size of the smallest particle that will be collected if it starts at the inside edge of the inlet duct. Thus, in theory, all particles of size Dp or larger should be collected with 100% efficiency. Note that the units must be consistent in all equations. One consistent set is m for Dp, R and W; m/s for Vi and Vt; kg/m.s for ; and kg/m3 for a and a. An equivalent set in English units is ft for dp, R and W; ft/sec for Vi and Vt; Lbm/ft.sec for ; and lbm/ft3 for p and a.

Collection Efficiency: The preceding equation shows that, in theory, the smallest diameter of particles collected with 100% efficiency is directly related to gas viscosity and inlet duct width, and inversely related to the number of effective turns, inlet gas velocity, and density difference between the particles and the gas. In practice, collection efficiency does, in fact, depend on these parameters. However, the model has a major flaw: It predicts that all particles larger than dp will be collected with 100% efficiency, which is incorrect. This discrepancy is the result of all our approximations. Lapple (1951) developed a semi-empirical relationship to calculate a 50% cut diameter dpc, which is the diameter of particles collected with 50% efficiency. The expression is dpc= [9 W /2 N Vi (p- a)]0.5 Where dpc = diameter of particle collected with 50% efficiency. The higher the inlet gas velocity, the greater the cyclone efficiency. In practice, however, this is not the case. In a real cyclone, efficiency increases up to a limiting value of gas velocity and then begins to decrease. The reason for the decrease in cyclone efficiency at high gas velocities is that the inner vortex becomes longer as gas velocity increases and causes the pressure drop of the gas entering the gas outlet tube to increase. The increased pressure drop across the gas outlet tube causes the inner
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vortex length to increase. At some vortex length, the vortex approaches the side of the cyclone cone. When this happens, the vortex will begin to pluck off the solids flowing on the side of the cone and cyclone efficiency will begin to decrease. If the vortex length is too long, so that it impinges against the side of the cone, severe erosion of the cyclone will result.

From the above given equations it can be deduced that cyclone efficiency increases with: 1. Increasing particle size. 2. Increasing particle density. 3. Increasing inlet gas velocity. 4. Increasing cyclone body length. 5. Increasing number of gas revolutions. 6. Increasing smoothness of the cyclone walls. 7. Decreasing cyclone diameter. 8. Decreasing gas outlet duct diameter. 9. Decreasing gas inlet area. 10. Decreasing gas viscosity.

Particle collection efficiency versus particle size ratio for standard conventional Cyclones

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Lapple then developed a general curve for

Standard conventional cyclones to predict the collection efficiency for any particle size. If the size distribution of particles is known, the overall collection efficiency of a cyclone can be predicted by using the figure. Theodore and DePaola (1980) then fitted an algebraic equation to the curve, which makes Lapples approach more precise and more convenient for application to computers. The efficiency of collection of any size of Particle is given by j = 1/ [1+ ( dpj+ dpc)2]

Where the collection efficiency of particles in the jth size range (0 < j < 1) dpj = characteristic diameter of the jth particle size range (in m).

The overall efficiency, called performance, of the cyclone is a weighted average of the collection efficiencies for the various size ranges, namely
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=jmj/M

Where = overall collection efficiency (0 < < 1) mj = mass of particles in the jth size range M = total mass of particles.

4. CYCLONE DESIGN
Typically, a particulate-laden gas enters tangentially near the top of the cyclone, as shown schematically in the figure. The gas flow is forced into a downward spiral simply

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because of the cyclones shape and the tangential entry. Another type of cyclone (a vane-axial cyclone see figure) employs an axial inlet with fixed turning vanes to achieve a spiraling flow. Centrifugal force and inertia cause the particles to move outward, collide with the outer wall, and then slide downward to the bottom of the device. Near the bottom of the cyclone, the gas reverses its downward spiral and moves upward in a smaller inner spiral. The cleaned gas exits from the top through a vortexfinder tube, and the particles exit from the bottom of the cyclone through a pipe sealed by a spring loaded flapper valve or rotary valve. Cyclones by themselves are generally not adequate to meet stringent air pollution regulations, but they serve an important purpose. Their low capital cost and their maintenance-free operation make them ideal for use as pre-cleaners for more expensive final control devices such as baghouses or electrostatic precipitators. In addition to use for pollution control work, cyclones are used extensively in process industries. For example, they are used for recovering and recycling certain catalysts in petroleum refineries and for recovering freeze-dried coffee in food processing plants. In the past, cyclones have often been regarded as low-efficiency collectors. However, efficiency varies greatly with particle size and cyclone design. During the last few decades, advanced design work has greatly improved cyclone performance. Current literature from some of the cyclone manufacturers advertises cyclone that have efficiencies greater than 98% for particles larger than 5 microns, and others that routinely achieve efficiencies of 90% for particles larger than 15 20 microns. 10

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In general, operating costs increase with efficiency (higher efficiency requires higher Inflow pressure), and three categories of cyclones are available: high efficiency, Conventional and high throughput.

4.1 Standard Cyclone Dimensions:

Extensive work has been done to determine in what manner dimensions of cyclones affect performance. In some classic work that is still used today, Shepherd and Lapple (1939, 1940) determined optimal dimensions for cyclones. Subsequent investigators reported similar work, and the so-called standard cyclones were born. All dimensions are related to the body diameter of the cyclone so that the results can be applied generally. The table given below illustrates some standard dimensions which yields a high efficiency cyclone. All the dimensions are relative to the cyclone diameter.

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Using the above table dimensions of the cyclone can be calculated. Further its efficiency can also be calculated using the formulae mentioned above. For calculation of dimensions and efficiency we developed an excel spreadsheet which is enclosed along with this report. In the following sections we will be describing about the spreadsheet regarding efficiency calculations. The input parameters required for excel sheet are: Flow rate of gas (m3/kg). Gas inlet velocity (m/s). Gas density (kg/m3). Particle density (kg/m3). Gas viscosity (pa-sec). Using these input parameters and the above table standard dimensions of cyclone can be calculated. For further calculation of cyclone efficiency two more input parameters are required:

Particle size range. Particle mass fractions.

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Based on the above parameters the number of turns and cut-off diameter will be calculated and will be used in the efficiency calculations. Sensitivity analysis can also be carried out using the excel sheet.

4.2 CALCULATION AND ANALYSIS: a. Our project is concerned with the design of cyclone separator for the fllowing inpiut parameters: Flow rate (Q): 5740.2 m3/hr Gas inlet velocity: 30 m/s Gas density: 0.2935 kg/m3 Particle density: 2000 kg/m3. Viscosity: 0.0000222 pa-sec.

The proposed dimensions for the above input parameters are:

Stairmand

Swift

Lapple

Swift

Peterson/Whitby

Diameter Inlet height Inlet width Outlet length Outlet diameter Cylinder height Overall height Dust outlet diameter

D a b S De h H

M M M M M M M

2.25 1.12 0.45 1.12 1.12 3.37 8.99

2.34 1.03 0.49 1.17 0.94 3.27 9.12

2.01 1.01 0.50 1.26 1.01 4.02 8.04

2.01 1.01 0.50 1.21 1.01 3.52 7.54

2.04 1.19 0.42 1.19 1.02 2.72 6.47

0.84

0.94

0.50

0.80

1.02

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From the above data: Inlet area: 0.505 m2. Number of turns: 3 Cut-off diameter: 8.92 microns.

Efficiency calculations for the given mass fraction and size range for Stairmand cyclone:

size range microns 0-63 63-125 125-250 250-350 350-500 500-700 700-1000 >1000

average size Microns 31.5 94 187.5 300 425 600 850 1000

mass fraction

efficiency

contribution to performance

0.284 0.507 0.105 0.008 0.004 0.027 0.006 0.059

0.925834983 0.991084584 0.997744186 0.99911761 0.999560137 0.999779256 0.999889998 0.999920521

0.262937135 0.502479884 0.10476314 0.007992941 0.003998241 0.02699404 0.00599934 0.058995311

overall Total 1 efficiency(%) 97.41600307

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5. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
5.1 Variation of efficiency with size range ( mass fractions constant) Case-I 5.1.1 WITH ACTUAL SIZE RANGES:

Flow rate (Q): 5740.2 m3/hr Gas inlet velocity: 30 m/s Gas density: 0.2935 kg/m3 Particle density: 2000 kg/m3. Viscosity: 0.0000222 pa-sec.

Efficiency vs. size range:

average size microns 31.5 94 187.5 300 425 600 850 1000 0.284 0.507 0.105 0.008 0.004 0.027 0.006 0.059 0.925983096 0.99110364 0.99774904 0.999119511 0.999561085 0.999779732 0.999890235 0.999920692 mass fraction efficiency

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1.02 E f f i c i e n c y 1 0.98 0.96

0.94
0.92 0.9 0.88

Size Range

This graph clearly shows the variation of efficiency with size range. Even though the particle size is as small as 31.5 microns the collection efficiency is 92.5%, which clearly shows that this cyclone can be used for removing particulates of diameter 31.5 microns. For particles greater than 94 microns, the collection efficiency is greater than 99%.the overall efficiency is 97.42%.

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5.1.2 WITH SMALLER SIZE RANGE:

average size microns 2.5 12.5 30 50 70 90 200 400

mass fraction

efficiency

0.284 0.507 0.105 0.008 0.004 0.027 0.006 0.059

0.073044877 0.663302151 0.919010807 0.969250024 0.984071332 0.990303118 0.998021078 0.999504534

1.2 E f f i c i e n c y 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 2.5 12.5 30 50 70 90 200 400 Average Size

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As the size range is taken on a smaller side, efficiency of the cyclone decreases. For a particle of average size 2.5 microns the collection efficiency is just 7.3%. However for all particles greater than 30 microns the collection efficiency is greater than 90%.

5.1.3. WITH LARGER SIZE RANGE:

average size microns 100 400 700 900 1100 1350 1600 1850

mass fraction

efficiency

0.284 0.507 0.105 0.008 0.004 0.027 0.006 0.059

0.992131028 0.999504534 0.999838161 0.999902091 0.999934456 0.999956483 0.999969019 0.999976826

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1.002 E f f i c i e n c y 1 0.998 0.996 0.994 0.992

0.99
0.988

Size Range

When there are relatively coarser particles, cyclonic efficiency increases as expected. For all particles with average size greater than 100 microns the collection efficiency is greater than 99%.even the overall efficiency is 99.92%.

5.2 DIFFERENT INPUT PARAMETERS: Case-II Flow rate: 19000 kg/hr. Gas density: 3.31 kg/m3. Inlet height: 450mm. Inlet width: 215mm Inlet area: 450* 215 mm2.

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Gas viscosity: 0.0000475 pa-sec. Particle density: 2000 kg/m3.

From the above input parameter, the proposed dimensions for a high efficiency cyclone separator are:

Stairmand

Swift

Lapple

Swift

Peterson/Whitby

Diameter Inlet ht Inlet width Outlet length Outlet diameter Cylinder ht Overall ht Dust outlet diameter

D a b S De h H

M M M M M M M

0.98 0.450 0.215 0.49 0.49 1.48 3.94

1.02 0.45 0.21 0.51 0.41 1.43 3.99

0.88 0.45 0.21 0.55 0.44 1.76 3.52

0.88 0.45 0.21 0.53 0.44 1.54 3.30

0.89 0.45 0.21 0.52 0.45 1.19 2.83

0.37

0.41

0.22

0.35

0.45

From the above data from Stairmand dimensions: Number of turns: 3.26 Cut-off diameter: 11.7 microns.

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size range microns 0-63 63-125 125-250 250-350 350-500 500-700 700-1000 >1000

average size microns 31.5 94 187.5 300 425 600 850 1000

mass fraction

efficiency

contribution to performance

0.284 0.507 0.105 0.008 0.004 0.027 0.006 0.059

0.879336417 0.984824418 0.996142011 0.998489422 0.999246753 0.999621927 0.999811582 0.999863861 overall

0.249731543 0.49930598 0.104594911 0.007987915 0.003996987 0.026989792 0.005998869 0.058991968

total

efficiency(%)

95.75979651

Sensitivity analysis of the above proposed dimensions:

5.2.1.Variation of efficiency with size range ( mass fractions constant): Efficiency vs. size range:

average size microns 31.5 94 187.5 300 425 600 850 1000

mass fraction

efficiency

0.284 0.507 0.105 0.008 0.004 0.027 0.006 0.059

0.879336417 0.984824418 0.996142011 0.998489422 0.999246753 0.999621927 0.999811582 0.999863861

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1.02 E f f i c i e n c y 1 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.9 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.82 0.8

Size Range

The graph clearly shows the distribution of efficiency with size range. For particles of average size 0f 94 microns the collection efficiency is 98.48 %. For particles greater than 94 microns, the efficiency is greater than 99%. The overall efficiency is 95.75%.

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5.2.2
average size microns 2.5 12.5 30 50 70 90 200 400 0.284 0.507 0.105 0.008 0.004 0.027 0.006 0.059 0.043888071 0.534356621 0.868593636 0.948349935 0.972963969 0.983468296 0.996607605 0.999149738 mass fraction efficiency

1.2 E f f i c i e n c y 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 2.5 12.5 30 50 70 90 200 400 Average Size

The above graph shows the variation between average size and efficiency for a slightly smaller particle. For a particle of average size 50microns efficiency is as high as 94.8% this clearly shows that particle of size greater than 50 microns will be efficiently removed.
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5.2.3.
average size microns 100 400 700 900 1100 1350 1600 1850 0.284 0.507 0.105 0.008 0.004 0.027 0.006 0.059 0.986567127 0.999149738 0.999722204 0.999831932 0.999887486 0.999925296 0.999946816 0.999960218 mass fraction efficiency

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1.002

E f f i c i e n c y

1 0.998 0.996 0.994 0.992

0.99
0.988

Size Range

In this case the size range is on a higher side. For all particles with average size greater than 100 microns the collection efficiency is greater than 98.65%. The overall efficiency is 99.57%. This clearly states that greater the size range, more efficiently the particles will be removed.

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5.3 GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS:

The above graph is a typical number of turns vs tangential velocity graph. From this graph for an inlet velocity of 16.48 m/s the corresponding numbers of turns are approximately 3.5. The theoretical value is 3.26 which are in good approximation to the graphical value.

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The loading of solids in the inlet gas is 0.3 kg of solids/m3 of gas.fro the first graph the low loading collection efficiency for diamter31.5 microns is approximately 85%, while the theoretical value is 87.5%. Also for this low loading efficiency and loading of solids in the inlet gas is 0.3 kg of solids/m3 of gas; the overall collection efficiency is approximately 96% which is in accordance to the theoretical value of 95.75%.

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6. Conclusion and Recommendations

From the sensitivity and graphical analysis carried out it is quite clear that cyclone separators have a high overall efficiency. These cyclones are capable of removing particulates of a wide size range. The efficiency of the designed cyclone (Case-I) is quite high as compared to that of presently installed cyclone (Case-II) at CCDP. Hence our objective of increasing the overall efficiency is complete. Following things should be kept in mind while deciding the dimensions of the cyclone: Availability of space. Input parameters: Inlet velocity should be as high as possible. Temperature and pressure should be kept at optimum level. Cyclone inlet width should be small enough, so that the particles are close to each other. Cyclone diameter should be optimized such that efficiency is high and separated particles dont get pulled back into the outward flow of the gas. Compromise between efficiency and pressure drop should be made. Electrostatic precipitators (ESP) and bag-filters should be used after cyclone separators to ensure dust free supply of gas.

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7.

References:

Knowlton T M, handbook of fluidization and fluid particle systems, chapter 22 cyclone separators.

Koch, W. H. and Licht, W., New design approach boosts cyclone efficiency Nag.P.K , Power Plant Engineering. Basu Prabir , Combustion And Gasification Of Fluidized Beds. Wikipedia, Online Encyclopedia. http://www.ajdesigner.com/phpcyclone/cyclone_equation_radial_velocity.php Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering - Evaluation of cyclone geometry and its influence on performance parameters by computational fluid dynamics (CFD).

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