A STUDY ON PLAIN PLUG GAUGE

AT

BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LTD.

A dissertation submitted to the JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL

UNIVERSITY in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (MSNT)

Submitted by
DOMITILA DESAI (16SS1A2913)

Under the Guidance of

M. Rajeshwara Chary

AGM, TC Production

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

OF

ENGINEERING SULTANPUR
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
OF

ENGINEERING SULTANPUR

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Miss. DOMITILA DESAI (16SS1A2913) have successfully completed
her mini-project work entitled A STUDY ON PLAIN PLUG GAUGE in partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the word of B.Tech degree academic year 2016-2020.

M. Rajeshwara Chary Dr. B. Balu Naik

Project Guide, Professor of Mechanical

Designation: AGM, Engineering and
TC Production, PRINCIPAL
BHEL, Hyderabad. JNTUHCES.
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project entitled “A STUDY ON PLAIN PLUG GAUGE”

submitted to JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING SULTANPUR for the award of the

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING is a result of original industrial oriented mini project

done by me.

It is further declare that the project report or any part of this has not been previously submitted
to any University or Institute for the award of degree or diploma.

DOMITILA DESAI

16SS1A2913.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am greatly thankful for Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd. (BHEL) for providing me vital and much
needed practical experience in the field of mechanics and manufacturing. I express my
gratitude to human resource and development for giving me a chance to the feel the industrial
environment. I am also thankful to BHEL engineers and the technical staff for giving their
precious time for helping me in understanding various aspects of machine manufacturing and
their assembly.

I am very thankful to my guide M. Rajeshwara Chary (AGM, TC production) for the valuable
guidance and advice.
 ABSTRACT

The aim of this mini project is to STUDY ON PLAIN PLUG GAUGE which consists of
Gauges are used in manufacturing process to check whether the component can be
accepted or rejected. They are mainly of two types firstly, standard gauges which are replica
of the mating component of the component being manufactured and secondly limit gauges
which are designed according to the maximum and minimum material conditions of the
component .In this report we deal with the types gauges, the principle behind the designing
of gauges and materials used for manufacturing gauge.
 INDEX

● INTRODUCTION
● BHEL AT CORPORATIVE LEVEL
● PRODUCTS AND DEVELOPMENT METHODS ADOPTED
● BHEL HYDERABAD UNIT
● BHEL-AN OVERVIEW
● THERMAL POWER PLANT
● SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THERMAL POWER PLANT
● WORKING PRINCIPLE OF (COAL-BASED) STEAM THERMAL POWER
PLANT
● RANKINE CYCLE
● FACTORS EFFECTING EFFICIENCY OF A STEAM TURBINE(RANKINE
CYCLE)
● METHODS TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY OF RANKINE CYCLE
● COMPOUNDING OF A TURBINE
● STEAM TURBINE
● CONCLUSION
● REFERENCES
 MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STEAMTURBINE AT BHEL
HYDERABAD

INTRODUCTION:

BHEL with decades of experience and over 1000 turbines has comprehensive
know how and know why steam turbines covering system design, engineering, manufacturing,
erection and commissioning. BHEL Hyderabad started manufacturing steam turbine in mid
sixties with Technologies from Skoda Czechoslovakia & later since mid-seventies with
Siemens collaboration.

BHEL steam turbines cover the whole range of requirement from Power, Drive, Cogeneration,
Solar applications and Combined cycle power plants encompassing comprehensively all
requirements for industry/utility sectors in range of 3-150MW.

BHEL-ATCORPORATELEVEL:

BHEL is one of the largest engineering and manufacturing of companies its kind in
India engaged in design, engineering and construction. It is also engaged in testing,
commissioning and servicing of a wide range of products and services with over 180 product
offerings to meet the ever-growing needs of the core sectors of economy.

One of the greatest challenges before the Government of India on attaining freedom was
to provide a strong base for economic and Industrial growth Government recognised that
adequate supply of electric power is a pre-condition for Industrial Growth. So, on 17th
November 1955 in collaboration with Associated Electrical Industries (AEI) UK, a factory was
established in Bhopal. The company was named Heavy Electricals (India) Limited (HE (I) L)
on 29th August 1956.

Due to increasing needs of electrical power, three more plants were set up for Heavy Electrical
Equipment. One at Tamil Nadu for high-pressure boilers. Second at Hyderabad (Telangana)
for steam turbo generators, pumps and compressors. Both of these with collaboration from
Czechoslovakia. Third one at Haridwar (Uttar Khand) with erstwhile USSR collaboration for
large steam generating sets and motors. It also manufactures Hydro generating sets.

So, Government decided to create a separate corporation to take care of these 3 power
plants. So, BHEL was born and formally incorporated on 13th November 1964.

Government of India decide to merge BHEL and HE (I) L and created a truly modern
global enterprise by merging them formally in 1974. BHEL with the manpower of 45000
reached a turnover of 230 crores (INR) by year 1974. It contributed 910MW of 4579MW
generated in the country by the mid of 1970’s. Now It has raised to 27850cr (INR).
PRODUCTS AND DEVELOPMENT METHODS ADOPTED:

Now, the equipment of BHEL accounts for about 60% of the power generated in India.

⮚ BHEL is working on renewable energy, energy efficiency of systems, energy efficient

systems and low emission technologies through Research and Development.
⮚ BHEL designs and manufacture and services various types of on-shore oil drilling rigs
and products for oil wells.
⮚ BHEL cater to host of industries including fertilizers, sugar refineries, petrochemicals,
cement and paper.
⮚ BHEL invests around 2.5% of turnover in Research & Development.
⮚ BHEL supply locomotives to Indian Railways.
⮚ BHEL is a regular supply of super rapid gum mount naval gums for anti-shipping and
anti-air capability.

BHEL- HYDERABAD UNIT:

1. As a member of the prestigious ‘BHEL family’, BHEL-HYDERABAD has earned a

reputation as one of its most important manufacturing units, contributing its lion’s share
in BHEL corporation’s overall business operations.
2. The Hyderabad Unit it was set up in 1963 and started and its operations with
manufacture of turbo-generator sets and auxiliaries for 60 and 110MW thermal utility
sets.
3. Over the years it has increased its capacity range and diversified its operations to many
other areas. Today a wide range of products are manufactured in this unit, catering to
the needs of variety of industries like Fertilisers& Chemical, Petrochemicals7
Refineries, Paper, Sugar, Steel, etc.
4. BHEL-HYDERABAD unit has collaborations with world renowned MNCs like M/S
General Electric, USA, M/S Siemens, Germany, M/S Nuevo, etc.

Major products of our unit’s manufacture include the following:

● Gas Turbines
● Steam Turbines
● Compressors
● Turbo Generators
● Heat Exchangers
● Pumps
● Pulverisers
● Switch Gears
● Gear Boxes
 ● Oil Rigs
● Project Engineering

VISION:
A World-class Engineering Enterprise Committed to enhancing Stakeholder Value.
MISSION:
To be an Indian Multinational Engineering Enterprise providing Total Business Solutions
through Quality Products, System and Services in the fields of Energy, Industry,
Transportation, Infrastructure and other potential areas.

BHEL-AN OVERVIEW:
Established in the mid-fifties, Bharat Heavy Electricals limited-BHEL has today emerged as
the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise of its kind in India and ranks amongst the
top ten power generation equipment manufacturers in the world.

BHEL has diversified its product base over the years and today caters to the needs of almost
all the key sectors of the economy. In addition to the power generation equipment, BHEL
products cater to a wide spectrum of customers encompassing various fields of operation, like
Fertilisers & Petrochemicals, Refineries, Oil Exploration and production, steel and metals,
cement, sugar and paper plants, transportation and non-conventional energy sources etc.

With a massive network of 14 manufacturing Units located at various important centres all
over India, BHEL manufactures almost all critical high technology products required for power
sector like Gas Turbines, Steam Turbines, Turbo generators, Boilers, Pumps and Heat
Exchangers, Pulverisers and electrical switch gears.

With strategic alliances and technologies collaboration, BHEL’s technological strength is

today on per with the best in the world.

THERMAL POWER PLANT:

A Thermal power plant is a power station in which the heat energy is converted to
electrical power. In most of the places the turbine is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into
steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electric generator.

Types of Thermal Power Plants:

Thermal power plants are classified on the basis of the source of thermal energy. They are:

● Coal-Based Thermal power plant

 ● Petroleum-Based Thermal power plant
● Nuclear Thermal power plant
● Solar Thermal power plant
● Waste incineration Thermal power plant
● Natural Gas Based Thermal power plant

Schematic Diagram of Thermal Power Plant:

Fig. a

Working Principle of (Coal-Based) Steam Thermal Power Plant:

Any thermal power plant works on the principle of “Rankin Cycle”.

1. The water is boiled and made into steam. The water is boiled by burning the coal and
supplying the heat evolved from it to the water.
2. The steam is kept on heating till it becomes superheated (A steam can only attain a
particular temperature at particular pressure heating it above that temperature but
keeping pressure constant is superheating.
3. Superheated steam has a lot of energy and passes through the blade of a turbine. The
pressure/thrust exerted by steam on turbine rotates the turbine. Then steam loses energy
and expands as the pressure drops and the volume expands according to the shape of
turbine.
4. Then steam is cooled at constant pressure to water in condenser.
5. Turbine shaft which is rotating is coupled with the generator which produces electricity
by means of Faraday’s Law (or) Lenz’s Law.

Rankin Cycle:

The Rankin Cycle is the fundamental operating cycle of all thermal power plants where an
operating fluid is continuously evaporated and condensed.
 The Pressure-Volume (P-V), Temperature-Entropy (T-S) & Enthalpy-Entropy (h-s)
diagram of this Rankin Cycle are shown below.

Fig. b

❖ Rankin cycle consists of 4 thermodynamic processes namely they are:

1. Isentropic Expansion (1-2):
It happens in the turbine where the superheated steam loses its energy helping in rotation of
rotor by expanding isentropic ally.
2. Constant Pressure Heat Rejection (2-3):
This happens in the condenser where the low pressure, low temperature wet steam converted
into low pressure feed water with change of phase through heat rejection.
3. Isentropic Compression (3-4):
This happens in the feed pump in which the low pressure, low temperature water is converted
into high pressure, moderate temperature water through compression.
4. Constant Pressure Heat Addition (4-1):

Here, the feed water is fed into the water boiler where the water is heated to high
temperature, high pressure Superheated steam. This is fed to the turbine through nozzle come
of pressure energy into kinetic energy of steams. So as to make steam suitable to apply thrust
on turbine blades.

Efficiencies of Rankin Cycle and their Calculations:

❖ Boiler efficiency = (Enthalpy of superheated steam) – (Enthalpy of water)/ Input

energy= Mass of coal*Calorific value.
 =Energy of superheated steam/Heat energy supplied by coal.

⮚ Efficiency of boiler ranges from 75-90%

In the Rankin cycle, the main efficiency is output to heat input

Rankin efficiency =Amount of heat of steam at exit of turbine/Amount of heat available at

exit of boiler.

❖ Internal Efficiency:

Internal efficiency = Amount of energy that is actually into thrust on rotor/Amount of energy
that can be converted theoretically.

⮚ Internal efficiency ranges from 80-95%.

❖ Mechanical Efficiency:

Mechanical efficiency =Amount of mechanical energy at coupling /Amount of

energy that is converted into thrust on rotor.

⮚ Mechanical efficiency ranges from 90-97%.

❖ Generator efficiency:

Generator efficiency =Amount of electric energy produced/Amount of

mechanical energy at coupling.

⮚ Generator efficiency ranges from 90-98%.

Factors Effecting Efficiency of a Steam Turbine (Rankin Cycle):

Mainly there are 5 parameters which affect the efficiency of Rankin cycle

● Boiler Pressure
● Boiler Temperature
● Condenser Pressure
● Reheat
● Regeneration

1. Boiler Pressure:
 Fig 1.1 T-S Plot

When the boiler pressure increases automatically the pressure energy of the
superheated steam increases, so the network increases (in maximum pressure increases, there
will be maximum workdone).

In both cases, of normal pressure and high pressure, the care of decrease in work
should also be taken care so that the network should be higher than that of normal pressure.
So, from study we can say that efficiency increases with the increase in boiler pressure.

2. Boiler Temperature:

Fig 2.1 T-S Plot

Temperature of boiler is nothing but temperature of steam entering the turbine. So, as the boiler
temperature raises, the temperature of the superheated steam increases. SO, here from
observations the amount of work that comes output raises, more than that of heat input. So,
Efficiency increases. So, As Boiler Temperature raises, Rankine efficiency also increases.

3. Condenser Pressure:
 Fig 3.1 T-S Plot

Now when the condenser pressure is changed then we will be able to change the temperature
of the feed water which is at Outlet of condenser. So, when condenser pressure decreases, the
heat supplied during the cycle increases to some extent but network increases to much more
extent. So, Net Efficiency increases.

4. Reheating:

Fig 4.1 T-S Plot

The vapour which is expanded while passing through the stages of turbine is again reheated.
Which increases network done, heat supply and also thermal efficiency. Thus, also helps
in decreasing moisture at outlet helping in decreasing the probability of erosion of
blades.
5. Regeneration:

Fig 5.1 T-S Plot

 The mean temperature of heat addition can also be increased by reducing amount
of heat added at economizer section. Here, heat energy is exchanged between expanding fluid
and compressed fluid before heat addition.

Regeneration can increase thermal efficiency but does not affect turbines work output.

Methods to Improve Efficiency of Rankin Cycle:

1. Pressure Difference:

As we know from P-V diagram, the network produced can be increased by

increasing the boiler pressure and decreasing the condenser pressure.

2. Compounding of Turbine:

Compounding means creating a multi-stage steam turbine. Compounding helps in

larger enthalpy drop. As blade speed is limited due to centrifugal forces and other factors,
compounding helps in desired output with optimum blade speed.

⮚ Compounding can be done in 3 ways

a. Pressure Compounding
b. Velocity compounding
c. Pressure and velocity compounding

Steam Turbine

Fig. c

A steam turbine can be defined as device which thermal energy from pressurized steam
and uses it to do/rotate the output shaft which is connected to electric generator to produce
electricity.

Types of Steam Turbine:

 ⮚ Based on blading turbine:
1. Impulse Turbine
2. Reaction Turbine
3. Combination of Impulse and Reaction stages
⮚ Based on Applications:
I. Utility Turbines
a. Regenerative feed heating
b. Regenerative feed heating with reheat
c. Combined cycle plants
II. Industrial Turbines
a. Captive
i. Straight condensing
ii. Straight condensing with injection
b. Cogeneration
i. Straight Back Pressure
ii. Extraction condensing
iii. Extraction Back Pressure
iv. Double Extraction Back Pressure

v. Extraction/Injection
III. Nuclear Turbines
IV. Marine Turbines

⮚ Based on component for which it act as a drive:

Drive Turbine

i. Compressor drive
ii. Blower drive
iii. Boiler feed pump drive

Components of Steam Turbine & Their Geometrical Features:

Steam Turbine can be divided into parts. They are:

1. Outer Casing:
a. Top casing
b. Bottom casing
c. Exhaust-hood
2. Inner Casing:
a. Steam Turbine
b. Guide blade carrier (GBC)
 3. Rotor
4. Front Bearing Housing
5. Rear Bearing Housing
6. Regulation Assembly
7. Lube Oil Control

Let us discuss major components of steam turbine

❖ Casing:

Fig. d

The casing for a steam turbine consists of a high pressure steam chest, intermediate
section and a separate exhaust casing. Intermediate section comes integrally along with the
steam chest. The steam end, exhaust casing, nozzle ring, reversal blades and diaphragms are
all on centre line (Horizontal) which allows easy removal of upper half of turbine.

The diaphragms are machined and assembled into grooves accurately machined in
casing. Nozzle ring is fastened to steam chest by cap screws whereas diaphragms halves are
locked in position half of turbine.

The high pressure-end of turbine is supported by the steam-end bearing housing which
is flexibly be mounted to allow for axial expansion (by temperature changes). The exhaust
casing is centreline supported on pedestals that maintain perfect alignment.

❖ Rotors:

Rotors are precisely machined from solid alloy forgings an integrally forged rotor
provides increased reliability particularly in high speed cases.
 Rotor assembly has to be balanced at operating speed and over speed tested in vacuum
bunker to ensure safety in operation, High speed balancing also reduce residual stresses.

❖ Stationary Parts:

Nozzle ring and diaphragms are specifically designed to handle pressure, temperature
and volume of steam. The nozzles used in first stage are cut from stainless steel. Steam passages
are then milled into these nozzle blocks.

Nozzles in intermediate stages are formed from profiled stainless steel. These are then
welded to circular centre section. Low pressure diaphragms are made by casting the stainless
nozzle sections directly into high-strength cast iron. Additional features such as wind age
shields and inter-stage drains are used as required by stage conditions to minimum erosion.
Seals are utilized as end gland seals and also inter-stage seals Leakage steam from outer glands
is generally condensed by gland condenser. Leakage steam in intermediate can be trapped and
re-injected into low-pressure stages.

❖ Blades:

Fig . e

Blades are milled from stainless steel stock and have a definite profile. Mainly disk profiles
are designed to minimize centrifugal stresses, thermal gradient and blade loading at disk rims.
The blades can be made with various shapes to achieve maximum performance and withstand
any mechanical stresses.

High-Pressure Turbine Blades:

These blades are situated at the starting of the rotor on it which is responsible of
extracting energy from high pressure, high temperature superheated steam entering the turbine.
These have smaller sizes than intermediate pressure blades and low-pressure blades.

The sizes of blades of intermediate pressure are larger than that of high- pressure
region and smaller than that of low- pressure region. These come in contact with high
temperature, intermediate pressure steam.
Low-Pressure Turbine Blades:

Titanium alloys offer high strength to intermediate temperature at a density almost half
steel and nickel-based super alloy. There is resistance to corrosion too in Titanium alloys.
These are used to make low-pressure turbine blades, fan and compressors stages of gas
turbines. Low-pressure blades are larger than high pressure and intermediate pressure blades.

❖ Control Valves:
⮚ Steam inlet valves perform one of two functions, protection or control.
⮚ They regulate the flow of steam or sometimes stop the flow if necessary.
⮚ Control valves are much needed so as to prevent the components of turbine from
damage due to the over loading of steam. Also, to supply optimum amount of steam
according to the working conditions.
❖ Turbine barring device:

When a turbine is left cold and at standstill, the weight of the rotor will tend
to bend the rotor slightly. If left at the standstill while the turbine is still hot, the lower half of
the rotor will cool off faster than upper half and the rotor will bend upwards “hog”. In both
cases, the turbine would be difficult if not impossible to start up. To overcome the problem the
manufacturer supplies the large turbines with a turning or barring gear consisting of an electric
motor which through several sets of reducing gears turns the turbine shaft at low speed.

❖ Turbine bearings:

One of the steam turbines basic parts in bearing. They are two types of
bearings used based on the type of load act on them.

● Radial bearing
● Thrust bearing

Radial bearing:

For small turbines mostly equipped with anti-friction type bearings. Widely used anti-friction
bearings the self-aligning spherical ball.

In the case of medium turbines used plain journal bearing. They may be ring
lubricated sleeve bearings with bronze or Babbitt lining.

For large turbines, the radial bearing will be a tilting pad type. The number of pads
per bearing will selected based on the weight of the rotor.
Thrust bearing:

The main two purposes of the thrust bearing are:

● To keep the rotor in an exact position in the casing.

● To absorb axial thrust on the rotor due to steam flow.

❖ Turbine seals:
Seals are used to reduce the leakage of steam between the rotary and stationary
parts of the steam turbine. Depend upon the location of seal, the seals are classified
as two types, they are
● Shaft seal
● Blade seal

Conclusion:

This report deals with the manufacturing of steam turbines

(Mainly rotor) in BHEL-HYDERABAD and also discusses about the working principle of
power plant (Steam turbine) and theoretical background of steam turbines. It then discusses
about the various components of steam turbines.

References:

1. Lectures from our guide sir

2. Websites: www.nuclear-power.net
www.siemens.com
Quora, Wikipedia
https. / / gradeup.co, bhel.com, bhelhyd.com

THANK YOU
A STUDY ON PLAIN PLUG GAUGE
 INDEX
• Introduction

• Interchangeability

• Limits, Fits and Tolerances

• Tolerances

• Fits

• Terminology and definitions used

• Fits system

• Limit gauging

• Taylor's principle

• Gauge tolerance

• Plain plug gauges

• Material for gauges

• Properties of materials

• OHNS steel

• Mechanical properties of OHNS steel

• Applications of OHNS steel

• Oil hardening

• Design of plain plug gauge for 36H7 hole

• Conclusion

• References
INTRODUCTION:
While manufacturing any parts it is nearly impossible to manufacture them according to their exact
dimensions due to the inherent inaccuracy of manufacturing methods therefore the need for limits
and fits was introduced.

In any production process regardless of how carefully it is maintained and designed a certain amount
of variation exist .Therefore it is impossible to produce a part to an exact size or basic size .Therefore
some variation known as tolerance must be allowed, this tolerance is made to lie between two
limits, upper and lower.

This difference between upper and lower limit is termed as permissible tolerance.

INTERCHANGEABILITY:
In this manufacturing of large number of components, it is not economical to produce both the
mating parts using same operator, therefore the concept of interchangeability comes into lay and
various components are manufactured in one or more batches by different persons on different
machines at different locations and then assembled at one place. To achieve this it is essential that
the mating parts are manufactured in bulk adhere to the limits of accuracy specified.

LIMITS, FITS AND TOLERANCES:

TOLERANCES:
As we know it is not possible to manufacture components to a given dimension because of
inaccuracies of the manufacturing process .The components all manufactured with some limits ,
these limits of various dimensions have to be specified considering this functional
requirements.Therefore tolerance can be defined as the magnitude of permissible variation of a
dimension , it is the algebraic difference between the upper and lower acceptable
dimension.Tolerance can be classified into: unilateral , bilateral and geometric tolerance.

• Unilateral tolerance:
If the tolerance is distributed only one-one side of the basic size , that is when limits lie wholly on
only one side of basic size then it is known as unilateral tolerance . It is used when precision fits are
required and also in drilling process where in dimensions of the hole are not likely to deviate in one
direction only.

• Bilateral tolerance:
When the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both sides of the basic size it is called as
bilateral tolerance. Example: 15±0.03,20±0.01.

Fig.1

• Geometric tolerance:
The geometric dimension such as roundness and straightness of a shaft have to be considered to
manufacture components more accurately.

Fig.2

FITS:
It is defined as "the relation resulting from the difference before assembly between the sizes of two
features i.e shaft and hole" as in IS919 (part-1).There are different types of fits:clearance fit ,
interference fit and transition fit.

• Clearance fit:
In this type of fit, the maximum size of the hole is always greater than that of the maximum size of
the shaft.

• Interference fit:
In this type of fit, the maximum size of the hole is less than the minimum size of the shaft, it
provides an interference between the hole and shaft when assembled.

• Transition fit:
 In this type of fit, a fit may be either be a clearance fit or interference fit depending on the actual
size of hole and shaft.

Fig.3

Fig.4

TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONSUSED:

• SHAFT:
A term used, according to convention, to describe an external feature of a work piece, including
features which are not cylindrical.
• HOLE:
A term used, according to convention, to describe an internal feature of a work piece, including
features which are not cylindrical.

• BASIC SIZE,NOMINAL SIZE:

The size from which the limits of size are derived by the application of the upper and lower
dimension.

• LIMITS OF SIZE:
The two extreme permissible sizes of a feature between which the actual size should lie.

• MAXIMUM LIMIT OF SIZE:

The greatest permissible size of a feature.

• MINIMUM LIMIT OF SIZE:

The smallest permissible size of a feature.
 • ZERO LINE:
In a graphical representation of limits and fits, the straight line, representing the basic size, to
which the deviations and tolerances are referred. According to convention, the zero line is drawn
horizontally, with positive deviations shown above and negative deviations below.

• UPPER DEVIATION:
The algebraic difference between the maximum limit of size and the corresponding basic size

• LOWER DEVIATION:
The algebraic difference between the minimum limit of size and the corresponding basic size.

• SIZE TOLERANCE:
The difference between the maximum limit of size and the minimum limit of size, i.e. the difference
between the upper deviation and the lower deviation.

Fig.5

FIT SYSTEM:
1. HOLE BASIS SYSTEM:
A system of fits in which the required clearance or interference is obtained by associating the shafts
of various tolerances with holes of single tolerance class.

Fig.6
2. SHAFT BASIS SYSTEM:
A system of fits in which the required clearance and interference is obtained by associating holes of
various tolerance classes with shaft of a single tolerance class.

Fig.7

MAXIMUM MATERIAL LIMIT(MML):

The designation applied to that of the two limits of size which corresponds to the maximum material
size for the feature, i.e.
- the maximum (upper) limit of size for an external feature (shaft).
- the minimum (lower) limit of size for an internal feature (hole).

MINIMUM MATERIAL LIMIT(LML):

The designation applied to that of the two limits of size which corresponds to material size for the
feature, i.e. the minimum
- the minimum (lower) limit of size for an external feature (shaft).
- the maximum (upper) limit of size for an internal feature (hole).

STANDARD TOLERANCES:
The standard tolerance grades are designated by the letters IT followed by a number.The position of
the tolerance 30N with respect to zero line is designated by upper case letter(A to Zc) and for lower
case letters(a to zc).For holes and shafts respectively,the letter i,l,o,q,w,I,L,O,Q,W are avoided.
-The upper deviations by letter 'ES' for holes and letter'es' for shafts.
-The lower deviation is indicated by letter 'EI' for holes and 'ei' for shafts.

Fig.8
 Fig.9

The ISO system of limits and fits provides 20 standard tolerance grades.IT01, IT0, IT1.......IT18, in size
range of 0 to 500 mm.Standard tolerances grades IT5 to IT18 the values for standard tolerance in
grades IT5 to IT18 for basic sizes up to and including 500mm are determined as a function of 'i'.
i = 0.453 3√D + 0.001D microns
D is geometric mean of the basic size steps.

LIMIT GAUGING:
-In mass production where components are manufactured in accordance with the permissive
tolerance limits, it is essential to check whether the dimensions of the manufactured components
are in accordance with the specifications
-Therefore gauges are used to check for the limits of the parts instead of measuring the actual
dimension.
-Limit gauge ensures that the components lie within permissible limits but they do not determine
the actual size of dimensions.
-The gauges are required to check the dimensions of the components correspond to two signs
conforming to the maximum and minimum limits of the components. They are called GO gauge and
NO GO gauge.
-The GO gauge is manufactured to the maximum limit will assembles the mating part whereas NO
GO gauge will not assemble which is manufactured for minimum limit.
-Therefore, every gauge is a replica of the part that mates with the part for which the gauge has
been designed.

TAYLOR'S PRINCIPLE:
• The taylor’s principle states that the GO gauge is designed to check
maximum metal conditions that is lower limit of hole and higher limit of
shaft .It should also check as many as dimensions in one GO.

• The NO GO gauge is designed to check the minimum metal conditions

that is higher limit of hole and lower limit of shaft .It should check only
one dimensions at a time ,therefore a separate NO GO gauge is
determined for each and every dimension.

• The GO gauge should go through the hole or just pass over the shaft
without any undue force .The NO GO gauge should not pass.
 • The nominal size of GO gauge corresponds to the lower limit of hole
and higher limit of shaft ,in contrast the NO GO gauge the nominal size
confers to the higher limit of hole and lower limit of shaft.

Fig.10

GAUGE TOLERANCE:
• As even gauges cannot be manufactured to the exact dimensions ,some tolerances are
given to the gauges ,this gauge tolerance should be kept as minimum as possible.

• Normally gauge tolerances is taken as 10% of work tolerance

• In the NO GO gauge , the gauge does not fully engage with the work and therefore goes
with minimum wear.

• Where as the GO gauge which passes through the component has wear as they measuring
surfaces often gets constantly rubbed against the surface of the workpiece .Therefore wear
allowance is provided opposite to wear.

• The wear allowance is taken as 10% of gauge tolerance and it is added for plug gauge and
subracted for ring gauge.

• The wear allowance is added in the direction opposite to the wear.

PLAIN PLUG GAUGES:

• These gauges are used for gauging holes and are commonly made up of hardened wear
resistant stee l,gauging surface .whereas the handles are made up of light metal alloy steel.

• They can be either double ended or single ended depending on the standards.

• The gauge is coated with an anti-corrosive coating to protect it against climate change.

• Specifications that are designated:

-Nominal size.
-"GO" and "NO GO" on GO and NO GO sides respectively.
-Class of tolerance of the workpiece to be gauges.
-red colour band on NO GO gauge side to distinguish from GO gauge.
 Fig.11

MATERIAL FOR GAUGES:

• The material used to manufacture the gauges should be hard and wear resistant and should
maintain dimensional stability.

• The material should be corrosion resistant , easily machinable to obtain a required degree of
accuracy and surface finish.

• It should have low coefficient of thermal expansion to avoid temperature effects.

• High-carbon steel is the most suitable and inexpensive material for manufacturing gauges.

• Mild steel gauges are suitable for larger gauges.

• Chromium-plated guages are extensively used as chromium makes the surface very hard ,
resistant to abrasion and corrosion.

SOME MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES:

• High carbon alloy steel is the commonly used gauge material because of their relatively high
hardness and wear resistance.

• Croine plated alloy steel is used for mass production runs. The durability of these gauges is’
10 to 12 times than that of without crome plated high carbon alloy steel gauges. One
advantage of crome plated gauging members is that when excessive wear had taken place
the cost of replacement of worn out part is small.

• For economy, only the parts subjected to wear are made of hardened alloy steel and
handles are made of cheaper mild steel.

• For high degree of accuracy, mass production, excessive wear condition, in bigger size
gauges, the whole body is made of mild steel and contact surface are deposited with a layer
of hard materials like, cemented carbides, tungsten carbide Stellite etc.

OHNS STEEL:
OHNS steel is a general purpose tool
steel that is typically used in applications where alloy steels cannot provide sufficient hardness,
strength and wear resistance. Chemical composition of OHNS is Carbon 0.94%, Manganese 1.2%,
Silicon 0.30%, Chromium 0.50% and Vanadium 0.15%. The hardening
temperature of OHNS steel is between 790 C and 820 C.
OHNS steel is a non - shrinkage steel. This term refers to steels which show little change in volume
from the annealed state when hardened and tempered at low temperatures.
Such steels are required for master tools, gauges and dies which must not change size when
hardened after machining in the annealed condition.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF OHNS STEEL:

STRENGTH AND HARDNESS:

Generally the strength increases as the carbon and manganese content increases. Given the high
percentage of both of those, OHNS becomes strong .OHNS has 58 RC to 64 RC hardness.

TOUGHNESS AND BRITTLENESS:

Toughness of a material determines whether it can be subjected to shock conditions, and the extent
to which it may undergo deformity in shape but still not snap. OHNS steel tends to be very tough. As
opposed to toughness , brittleness measures whether a material will snap instead of getting
deformed, when load is applied. OHNS steels are less brittle than cast or pig iron because of the
presence of magnesium.

DUCTILITY AND MALLEABILITY:

Ductility is a material’s ability to be drawn into wires without breaking. Ductility decreases with
increasing carbon, and because OHNS steel has very high carbon content, it is not very ductile. On
the other hand, malleability determines a material’s ability to be rolled into sheets without getting
ruptured. OHNS steel is quite malleable and can be worked upon even at low room temperatures.

APPLICATIONS OF OHNS STEEL:

It is to be considered as die steel. It is used for manufacturing of blanking and stamping dies, rotary
shear blades, thread outing tools, milling cutters, measuring tools, gauging tools, wood working
tools, reamers, etc.

OIL HARDENING:
Oil quench hardening is a common method for hardening alloy steel forgings. It’s ideal for achieving
the required strength and hardness properties on many alloys with less risk of cracking than water or
polymer quench processes.
The process of oil quench hardening for forgings is performed by first fully austenitizing the steel in
the temperature range of 1500°F – 1650°F depending on the steel grade. It is held at this
temperature for a time proportionate with the part cross-section.
The entire austenitizing process is typically carried out under a protective carbon-controlled
atmosphere that prevents excessive scale formation on the forged surface. Once soaked at the
austenitizing temperature for the appropriate amount of time, the load is quenched in agitated oil to
produce a fully hardened martensitic microstructure, the depth of which is dependent on the alloy
grade and section thickness. From this point, the parts are tempered down to the specified hardness
range to improve toughness.
In cases where parts are especially distortion sensitive or crack-prone. A custom-tailor oil quench
process id performed to minimize or eliminate these problems completely while still achieving the
required material properties.

DESIGN OF PLAIN PLUG GAUGE FOR 36H7 HOLE:

1.Fundamental Tolerance:
For H7 the fundamental tolerance is 16i from the standard tolerance grade from ISI919 part 1
We know that I = 0.453 3√D + 0.001D
Here,36 lies between the range 30 to 50 ,therefore
D = √30×50 = 38.7298mm.
Now i= 0.453√(38.7298) + 0.001(38.7298)
i= 1.571µm.
16i= 16(1.571µm) =0.02512mµ≈0.025mm.

2.Limits of hole:
The fundamental deviation for the hole if zero as the H lies on the basic line.
The tolerance is 0.025mm.
Hence , the lower limit is 36mm and the upper limit id 36.025mm.

3.For plug gauge of 36H7 hole:

The gauge tolerance is taken as 10% of work tolerance ,therefore
Gauge tolerance = 10% of 0.025
= 0.0025mm.
The wear tolerance is taken as 10% of gauge tolerance , therefore
Wear tolerance = 10%of 0.0025
= 0.00025mm.

4.For GO plug gauge side:

Lower limit= basic size + wear tolerance
=36+0.00025
=36.00025mm.
Higher limit=basic size +wear tolerance +gauge tolerance
=36+0.00025+0.0025
= 36.00275mm.
Therefore for the GO gauge side the limits are 36.00025mm and 36.00275mm.

5.Limits for NO GO gauge side :

Lower limit= basic size + fundamental tolerance
=36+0.025
=36.025mm.
Higher limit = basic size + fundamental tolerance + gauge tolerance
= 36+0.025+ 0.0025
=36+0.0275
=36.0275mm.
Therefore the NO GO gauge side limits are 36.025mm and 36.0275mm.
CONCLUSION:
This report on the design of a double sided plain plug gauge deals with the basic concepts of limits
and fits,IS standard system,paramaters regarding the designing of a guage,material requirements
and about OHNS(oil hardened non shrinkage steel) steel used to design the plain plug gauge fo
36H7.

REFERENCES:
1.Engineering metrology and measurements text book by N.V.Raghavendra,L.Krishnamurthy.
2.A text book of metrology by M.Mahajan.
3.IS 919-part1
4.IS 919-part2
5.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrology
6.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limits_and_fits
7.http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/76202/14/14_chapter%204.pdf
8.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool_steel