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Optical Fibre
3.1 Introduction
Communication means transfer of information from one point to another. There has always
been a demand for increases capacity of transmission of information and scientists and
engineers continuously pursue technological routes for achieving this goal. The conduction of
light along transparent cylinders by multiple total internal reflections is a fairly old and well
known phenomenon. However, the earliest recorded scientific demonstration of this
phenomenon was given by John Tyndall at the Royal society in England in 1870. In this
demonstration, Tyndalll used an illuminated vessel of water and showed that when a stream
of water was allowed to flow through a hole in the side of the vessel, light was conducted
along the curved path of the stream. When it is necessary to transmit information, such as
speech, images, or data, over a distance, one generally uses the concept of carrier wave
communication. In such a system, the information to be sent modulates an electromagnetic
wave such as a radio wave, microwave, or light wave, which acts as a carrier. This modulated
wave is then transmitted to the receiver through a channel and the receiver demodulates it to
retrieve the imprinted signal. The carrier frequencies associated with TV broadcast
( 900 MHz) are much higher than those associated with AM radio broadcast ( 20 MHz).
This is due to the fact that, in any communication system employing electromagnetic waves
as the carrier, the amount of information that can be sent increases as the frequency of the
carrier is increased. Obviously, TV broadcast has to carry much more information than AM
broadcasts. Since optical beams have frequencies in the range of 1014 to 1015 Hz, the use of
such beams as the carrier would imply a tremendously large increase in the information-
transmission capacity of the system as compared to systems employing radio waves or
microwaves.
In a conventional telephone hookup, voice signals are converted into equivalent electrical
signals by the microphone and are transmitted as electrical currents through metallic (copper
or aluminum) wires to the local telephone exchange. Thereafter, these signals continue to
travel as electric currents through metallic wire cable (or for long-distance transmission as
radio/microwaves to another telephone exchange) usually with several repeaters in between.
From the local area telephone exchange, at the receiving end, these signals travel via metallic
wire pairs to the receiver telephone, where they are converted back into corresponding sound
waves. Through such cabled wire-pair telecommunication systems, one can at most send
48 simultaneous telephone conversations intelligibly. On the other hand, in an optical
communication system that uses glass fibers as the transmission medium and light waves as
carrier waves, it is distinctly possible today to have 35,000 or more simultaneous telephone
conversations (equivalent to a transmission speed of about 2.5 Gbit/s) through one glass fiber
no thicker than a human hair. This large information-carrying capacity of a light beam is what
generated interest among communication engineers and caused them to explore the
possibility of developing a communication system using light waves as carrier waves.
The idea of using light waves for communication can be traced as far back as 1880 when
Alexander Graham Bell invented the photo phone (Figure 3.1) shortly after he invented the
telephone in 1876. In this remarkable experiment, speech was transmitted by modulating a
light beam, which traveled through air to the receiver. The flexible reflecting diaphragm
(which could be activated by sound) was illuminated by sunlight. The reflected light was
received by a parabolic reflector placed at a distance of about 200 m. The parabolic reflector
concentrated the light on a photo conducting selenium cell, which formed a part of a circuit
with a battery and a receiving earphone. Sound waves present in the vicinity of the diaphragm
vibrated the diaphragm, which led to a consequent variation of the light reflected by the
diaphragm. The variation of the light falling on the selenium cell changed the electrical
conductivity of the cell, which in turn changed the current in the electrical circuit. This
changing current reproduced the sound on the earphone.
Figure 3.1: Schematic of the photophone invented by Bell. In this system, sunlight was
modulated by a vibrating diaphragm and transmitted through a distance of about 200 meters in
air to a receiver containing a selenium cell connected to the earphone.
After succeeding in transmitting a voice signal over 200 meters using a light signal, Bell
wrote to his father: "I have heard a ray of light laugh and sing. We may talk by light to any
visible distance without any conducting wire." To quote from Maclean: "In 1880 he (Graham
Bell) produced his 'photophone' which, to the end of his life, he insisted was '...the greatest
invention I have ever made, greater than the telephone....' Unlike the telephone, though, it had
no commercial value."
The modern impetus for telecommunication with carrier waves at optical frequencies owes its
origin to the discovery of the laser in 1960. Earlier, no suitable light source was available that
could reliably be used as the information carrier. At around the same time,
telecommunication traffic was growing very rapidly. It was conceivable then that
conventional telecommunication systems based on, say, coaxial cables, radio and microwave
links, and wire-pair cable, could soon reach a saturation point. The advent of lasers
immediately triggered a great deal of investigation aimed at examining the possibility of
building optical analogues of conventional communication systems. The very first such
modern optical communication experiments involved laser beam transmission through the
atmosphere. However, it was soon realized that shorter-wavelength laser beams could not be
sent in open atmosphere through reasonably long distances to carry signals, unlike, for
example, the longer-wavelength microwave or radio systems. This is due to the fact that a
laser light beam (of wavelength about 1 m) is severely attenuated and distorted owing to
scattering and absorption by the atmosphere. Thus, for reliable light-wave communication
under terrestrial environments it would be necessary to provide a "guiding" medium that
could protect the signal-carrying light beam from the vagaries of the terrestrial atmosphere.
This guiding medium is the optical fiber, a hair-thin structure that guides the light beam from
one place to another as was shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: A typical fiber optic communication system: T, transmitter; C, connector; S, splice;
R, repeater; D, detector
A ray of light travels more slowly in an optically dense medium than in one that is less dense
and the refractive index gives the measure of this effect.
Snell’s law of refraction, which is derived from basic electromagnetic theory, states that
when light is incident on two homogeneous isotropic media that have a common plane
boundary, the bending of light at the interface is governed by the following expression
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
n2
2 n2 n2
n1 n1
1 n1
r
(c)
(a) (b)
Figure 3.3: (a) A ray of light incident on a denser medium (n 2 > n 1 ). (b) A ray incident on a
rarer medium (n 2 < n1 ). (c) For n 2 < n 1 , if the angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, it
will undergo total internal reflection.
As we know, when a ray of light is incident at the interface of two media (like air and glass),
the ray undergoes partial reflection and partial refraction as shown in Figure 3.3. The angles
1, 2, and r represent the angles that the incident ray, refracted ray, and reflected ray make
with the normal. Further, the incident ray, reflected ray, and refracted ray lie in the same
plane. In Figure 3.3 (a), since n2 > n1 we must have (from Snell's law) 2 < 1, i.e., the ray
will bend toward the normal. On the other hand, if a ray is incident at the interface of a rarer
medium (n2 < n1), the ray will bend away from the normal (see Figure 3.3b). The angle of
incidence, for which the angle of refraction is 90º, is known as the critical angle and is
denoted by c. Thus, when
-- (1)
2 = 90 . When the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle (i.e., when 1 > c), there is
no refracted ray and we have total internal reflection (3.3c).
Total internal refection confines light within optical fibers (similar to looking down a mirror
made in the shape of a long paper towel tube). Because the cladding has a lower refractive
index, light rays reflect back into the core if they encounter the cladding at a shallow angle. A
ray that exceeds a certain "critical" angle escapes from the fiber.
Example 3.1
For the glass-air interface, n1 = 1.501, n2 = 1.0, and the critical angle is given by
c= sin-1 =41.80
On the other hand, for the glass-water interface, n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.336, and
c = sin-1 62.5º.
3.4 The Construction Of An Optical Fibre
The structure of an optical fibre consists of a transparent core with a refractive index
n1 surrounded by a transparent cladding of slightly lower refractive index n2. The core must a
very clear and pure material for the light or in most cases near infrared light (850nm, 1300nm
and 1500nm). The core can be Plastic (used for very short distances) but most are made from
glass. Glass optical fibers are almost always made from pure silica, but some other materials,
such as fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate, and chalcogenide glasses, are used for longer-
wavelength infrared applications.
where n1 and n2 ( n1) represent respectively the refractive indices of core and cladding and a
represents the radius of the core. We define a parameter through the following equations.
When << 1 (as is indeed true for silica fibers where n1 is very nearly equal to n2) we may
write
The cladding is usually pure silica while the core is usually silica doped with germanium.
Doping by germanium results in a typical increase of refractive index from n2 to n1.
3.5 Acceptance Angle
To understand the propagation of light in an optical fibre through total internal
reflection at the core cladding interface, it is useful to give more stress upon the geometric
optics approach with reference to the light rays entering the fibre. Since only rays with a
sufficient grazing angle at the core cladding interface are transmitted by the total internal
reflection, it is clear that not all rays entering the fibre core will continue to propagate down
the length of the optical fibre.
Now, for a ray entering the fiber core at its end, if the angle of incidence at the
internal core-cladding interface is greater than the critical angle c [= sin-1 (n2/n1)], the ray
will undergo TIR at that interface. Further, because of the cylindrical symmetry in the fiber
structure, this ray will suffer TIR at the lower interface also and therefore be guided through
the core by repeated total internal reflections.
Figure 3.5 shows a number of light rays entering the optical fibre at left end (called
Launching End). Let no, n1, n2 be the refractive indices of surrounding, core and clad
respectively where n0 < n2 < n1. Let a ray of light (named as ray number 1) enters the fibre
making an angle θi with axis of fibre. It refracts into the core at angle θr and then travels along
path DA. At point A, it strikes core clad interface and angle of incidence at A is ¢. If ¢ is
greater than critical angle then ray will suffer total internal reflection and hence can propagate
through fibre.
Apply Snell's level at point D we get
n0 sin i n1 sin r
In right angled triangle AED, we have
r 900
r 90 0
Sin r = cos
substituting this in the above equation we get
n0 sin i n1 cos
We know that decreases as cos increase. Thus, i and hence sin i is maximum, when is
minimum. The minimum value of is equal to the critical angle c. so that the ray just suffer the total
internal reflection at the core cladding interface and the largest value of θi is θ0. Therefore,
c min imum
i 0 max imum
n0 sin 0 n1 cos c
According to the Snell’s law the critical angle is given by
n1 sin c n2 sin 900
n2
That implies sin c
n1
cos c 1 sin 2 c
n22 1
= 1 n12 n22
n12 n1
Substitute this value we get
n0 sin 0 n12 n22
1
sin 0 n12 n22
n0
1 1
0 sinn12 n22
n0
Above Equation gives the maximum value of angle of incidence at the launching end of
the optical fibre, such that the ray can just propagated in the core of the fibre. This angle is
called acceptance angle. The light rays contained within a cone having semi vertical angle 0
are accepted or transmitted along the fibre. This cone is called Acceptance cone.
3.6 Numerical Aperture
On the basis of ray theory analysis it is possible to obtain a relationship between the
acceptance angle and the refractive indices of the three medium involved, namely the core,
cladding and air. This leads to the definition of the more generally used term, the numerical
aperture of an optical fibre. For an optical fibre the acceptance angle is the maximum angle of
incidence at the launching (input) end of the fibre so that the optical information can just
propagate with in the optical fibre. On the similar lines numerical aperture of an optical fibre
is defined as the light gathering ability of an optical fibre.
We return to Figure 3.5 and consider a ray that is incident on the entrance face of the fiber
core, making an angle i with the fiber axis. Let the refracted ray make an angle with the
same axis. Assuming the outside medium to have a refractive index n0 (which for most
practical cases is unity), we get
Obviously, if this refracted ray is to suffer total internal reflection at the core-cladding
interface, the angle of incidence must satisfy the equation,
Since
,
we will have
Let im represent the maximum half-angle of the acceptance cone for rays at the input end.
Applying Snell's law at the input end and using above Equations we must have i< im, where
and we have assumed n0 = 1; i.e., the outside medium is assumed to be air. Thus, if a cone of
light is incident on one end of the fiber, it will be guided through it provided the half-angle of
the cone is less than im. This half-angle is a measure of the light-gathering power of the fiber.
We define the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber by the following equation:
The numerical apertures for fibres used in short distance communication are in the range of
0.3 to 0.5. Where as for long distance transmission NA lies in the range 0.1 to 0.3.
Example 3.2
For a typical step-index (multimode) fiber with n1 1.45 and 0.01, we get
so that im 12 . Thus, all light entering the fiber must be within a cone of half-angle
12 .
Example 3.3
A silica optical fibre with core diameter large enough to be considered by ray theory
analysis has a core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47.
Determine (a) the critical angle at the core –cladding interface; (b) the NA of the
fibre; (c) The acceptance angle in air of the fibre.
Example 3.4
A typical relative refractive index difference for an optical fibre designed for long
distance communication is 1%. Estimate the NA and the solid acceptance angle in air
for the fibre when the core index is 1.46. Further, calculate the critical angle at the
core-cladding interface with in the fibre. It may be assumed that the concept of
geometric optics hold for the fibre.
3.7 Modes Of Propagation Of An Optical Fibre
3.7.1 Single Mode:
Single mode of propagation is a single stand (most applications use 2 fibers) of glass fiber
with a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has one mode of transmission. Single Mode Fiber
with a relatively narrow diameter, through which only one mode will propagate typically
1310 or 1550nm. Carries higher bandwidth than multimode fiber, but requires a light source
with a narrow spectral width. Synonyms mono-mode optical fiber, single-mode fiber, single-
mode optical waveguide, uni-mode fiber.
Single Modem fiber is used in many applications where data is sent at multi-frequency
(WDM Wave-Division-Multiplexing) so only one cable is needed - (single-mode on one
single fiber)
Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more distance than
multimode, but it also costs more. Single-mode fiber has a much smaller core than
multimode. The small core and single light-wave virtually eliminate any distortion that could
result from overlapping light pulses, providing the least signal attenuation and the highest
transmission speeds of any fiber cable type.
Single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber in which only the lowest order bound mode can
propagate at the wavelength of interest typically 1300 to 1320nm.
Figure 3.6 Single mode propagation
3.7.2 Multi-Mode:
Multimode optical fibre has a little bit bigger diameter, with a common diameters in
the 50-to-100 micron range for the light carry component (in the US the most common size is
62.5um). Most applications in which Multi-mode fiber is used, 2 fibers are used (WDM is not
normally used on multi-mode fiber). POF is a newer plastic-based cable which promises
performance similar to glass cable on very short runs, but at a lower cost.
Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at high speeds (10 to 100MBS - Gigabit to 275m
to 2km) over medium distances. Light waves are dispersed into numerous paths, or modes, as
they travel through the cable's core typically 850 or 1300nm. Typical multimode fiber core
diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100 micrometers. However, in long cable runs (greater than 3000
feet [914.4 meters), multiple paths of light can cause signal distortion at the receiving end,
resulting in an unclear and incomplete data transmission so designers now call for single
mode fiber in new applications using Gigabit and beyond.
As you see, there are two windows at which loss attains its minimum value. The first window
is around 1300 nm (with a typical loss coefficient of less than 1 dB/km) where, fortunately
the material dispersion is negligible. However, the loss attains its absolute minimum value of
about 0.2 dB/km around 1550 nm. The latter window has become extremely important in
view of the availability of erbium-doped fiber amplifiers.
Example 3.7
Let us assume that the input power of a 5-mW laser decreases to 30 W after
traversing through 40 km of an optical fiber. Find the attenuation of the fiber in
dB/km. [ 0.56 dB/km.]
Example 3.8
When the mean optical power launched in to an 8 km length of fibre is 120 microWatt, the
mean optical power at the fibre output is 3 microWatt. Deteremine;
(a) The overall signal attenuation or loss in decibles through the fibre assuming there are
no splicers and connectors.
(b) The signal attenuation per kilometer for the fibre
(c) The overall signal attenuation for a 10 km optical link using the same fibre with
splicing at 1 km interval, each giving an attenuation of 1 dB.
(d) The numerical input/output ratio in (c).
3.10 Dispersion
In digital communication systems, information to be sent is first coded in the form of pulses
and these pulses of light are then transmitted from the transmitter to the receiver, where the
information is decoded. The larger the number of pulses that can be sent per unit time and
still be resolvable at the receiver end, the larger will be the transmission capacity of the
system. A pulse of light sent into a fiber broadens in time as it propagates through the fiber.
This phenomenon is known as pulse dispersion, and it occurs primarily because of the
following mechanisms:
1. Different rays take different times to propagate through a given length of the fiber.
We will discuss this for a step-index multimode fiber and for a parabolic-index fiber
in this and the following sections. In the language of wave optics, this is known as
intermodal dispersion because it arises due to different modes traveling with different
speeds.
2. Any given light source emits over a range of wavelengths, and, because of the
intrinsic property of the material of the fiber, different wavelengths take different
amounts of time to propagate along the same path. This is known as material
dispersion or intramodal dispersion
3.10.1 Intermodal dispersion
This type of dispersion is also termed as modal dispersion. The dispersion arises due to the
difference in the time taken by the various modes to travel along given length of the fibre and
does not depend upon the wavelength of the light, but depends upon the angle at which the
ray of light strikes core clad interface.
where has been defined earlier and n1 ~ n2 . The quantity V is often referred to as the "V-
number" or the "waveguide parameter" of the fiber.
Example 3.10
Consider a step-index fiber (operating at 1300 nm) with n2 = 1.447, = 0.003, and a
= 4.2 m. Thus,
Thus the fiber will be single moded and the corresponding value of will be about
= 3.1º. It may be mentioned that for the given fiber we may write
Thus, for
0 > 2.958/2.4045 = 1.23 m
which guarantees that V < 2.4045, the fiber will be single moded. The wavelength for
which V = 2.4045 is known as the cutoff wavelength and is denoted by c. In this
example, c = 1.23 m and the fiber will be single moded for 0 > 1.23 m.
Example 3.11
For reasons that will be discussed later, the fibers used in current optical
communication systems (operating at 1.55 m) have a small value of core radius and
a large value of . A typical fiber (operating at 0 1.55 m) has n2 = 1.444,
= 0.0075, and a = 2.3 m. Thus, at 0 = 1.55 m, the V-number is,
The fiber will be single moded (at 1.55 m) with = 5.90. Further, for the given fiber
we may write
Although the most important application of optical fibers is in the field of transmission of
information, optical fibers capable of sensing various physical parameters and generating
information are also finding widespread use. The use of optical fibers for such applications
offers the same advantages as in the field of communication: lower cost, smaller size, more
accuracy, greater flexibility, and greater reliability. As compared to conventional electrical
sensors, fiber optic sensors are immune to external electromagnetic interference and can be
used in hazardous and explosive environments. A very important attribute of fiber optic
sensors is the possibility of having distributed or quasi-distributed sensing geometries, which
would otherwise be too expensive or complicated using conventional sensors. With fiber
optic sensors it is possible to measure pressure, temperature, electric current, rotation, strain,
and chemical and biological parameters with greater precision and speed. These advantages
are leading to increased integration of such sensors in civil structures such as bridges and
tunnels, process industries, medical instruments, aircraft, missiles, and even cars.
Fiber optic sensors can be broadly classified into two categories: extrinsic and intrinsic. In
the case of extrinsic sensors, the optical fiber simply acts as a device to transmit and collect
light from a sensing element, which is external to the fiber. The sensing element responds to
the external perturbation, and the change in the characteristics of the sensing element is
transmitted by the return fiber for analysis. The optical fiber here plays no role other than that
of transmitting the light beam. On the other hand, in the case of intrinsic sensors, the physical
parameter to be sensed directly alters the properties of the optical fiber, which in turn leads to
changes in a characteristic such as intensity, polarization, or phase of the light beam
propagating in the fiber.
A large variety of fiber optic sensors has been demonstrated in the laboratory, and some are
already being installed in real systems.
(d) Millatary And Aerospace Applications:
In military optical fibres find their use in guided weapons and submarine war fare
nets, nuclear testing and fixed plant installations etc. in aerospace, optical fibres are widely
used because their low weight and small size and further more these fibres provide full signal
security.
(e) In Communication:
Due to their small size and light weight and enormous bandwidth optical fibres are
widely used in communication.
Questions
1. Consider a step index optical fibre for which n1=1.475, n2=1.460 and a=25 micro
meter. What is the maximum value of theta for which the rays will be guided through
the fibre? (b) corresponding to the maximum value of theta calculate the number of
reflections that would take place in transversing a kilometer length of the fibre.
Ans. 8.2, 2.88 million reflections/km
2. In the above problem assume a loss of only 0.01 % of power at each reflection at the
core cladding interface. Calculate the corresponding loss in dB/km.
Ans. 1234 dB.
3. Repeat the calculations in the above two problems for a bare silica fibre for which
n1=1.46, n2=1 and a=25 micro meter.
Ans. 46.8 degree, 21 millions/km, 9150 dB/km
4. Consider a bare fibre consisting of a core of refractive index 1.48 and having air as
cladding. What is its numerical aperature? What is the maximum incident angle upto
which light can be guided by the fibre? Ans. 1.09, pi/2.
5. Consider a fibre with n1 =1.48, n2=1.46 and with its end placed in water, what is the
maximum angle of incidence for guidance? Ans. 10.5 degree.
6. Polymer optical fibres with high purity polymethyle methacrylate core and florinatted
cladding are commercially available with a numerical aperture of 0.50. What is the
corresponding maximum angle of acceptance? Ans. 60 degree.
7. An optical fibre has a numerical aperture of 0.5 and a cladding refractive index of
1.46. Find
a) the acceptance angle for the fibre in water which has a refractive index of 1.33
b) the critical angle at the core – cladding interface?
8. A step index fibre has a relative refractive index difference of 0.85%. calculate the
critical angle at the core – cladding interface, when the core – index is 1.59. Also
findthe numerical aperture, if the source to fibre medium is air.
9. In an optical fibre, the core material has refractive index 1.546 and refractive index of
clad material is 1.378. What is the value of critical angle? Also find the numerical
aperture and the value of angle of acceptance cone.
10. Optical power of 1.5mW is launched into an optical fibre of length 98m. If the power
emerging from the other end is 0.45 mW, find out the fibre attenuation.
4
Superconductivity and Nanotechnology
____________________________________
4.1 Introduction
In 1911, Onnes began to investigate the electrical properties of metals in extremely cold
temperatures. It had been known for many years that the resistance of metals fell when cooled
below room temperature, but it was not known what limiting value the resistance would
approach, if the temperature were reduced to very close to 0 K. Some scientists, such as
William Kelvin, believed that electrons flowing through a conductor would come to a
complete halt as the temperature approached absolute zero. Other scientists, including Onnes,
felt that a cold wire's resistance would dissipate. This suggested that there would be a steady
decrease in electrical resistance, allowing for better conduction of electricity. At some very
low temperature point, scientists felt that there would be a leveling off as the resistance
reached some ill-defined minimum value allowing the current to flow with little or no
resistance. Onnes passed a current through a very pure mercury wire and measured its
resistance as he steadily lowered the temperature. Much to his surprise there was no leveling
off of resistance, let alone the stopping of electrons as suggested by Kelvin. At 4.2 K the
resistance suddenly vanished. Current was flowing through the mercury wire and nothing was
stopping it, the resistance was zero. Figure (4.1) is a graph of resistance versus temperature in
mercury wire as measured by Onnes. According to Onnes, "Mercury has passed into a new
state, which on account of its extraordinary electrical properties may be called the
superconductive state". The experiment left no doubt about the disappearance of the
resistance of a mercury wire. Kamerlingh Onnes called this newly discovered state,
Superconductivity.
Onnes recognized the importance of his discovery to the scientific community as well as its
commercial potential. An electrical conductor with no resistance could carry current any
distance with no losses. Figure (4.2) shows the temperature dependence of a normal metal
and a superconductor.
In one of Onnes experiments, he started a current flowing through a loop of lead wire
cooled to 4 K. A year later the current was still flowing without significant current loss.
Onnes found that the superconductor exhibited what he called persistent currents, electric
currents that continued to flow without an electric potential driving them. Onnes had
discovered superconductivity, and was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1913. The next great
milestone in understanding how matter behaves at extreme cold temperatures occurred in
1933. German researchers Walter Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered that a
superconducting material will repel a magnetic field. In subsequent decades other
superconducting metals, alloys and compounds were discovered. In 1941 niobium-nitride was
found to superconduct at 16 K. In 1953 vanadium-silicon displayed superconductive
properties at 17.5 K. And, in 1962 scientists at Westinghouse developed the first commercial
superconducting wire, an alloy of niobium and titanium (NbTi). High-energy, particle-
accelerator electromagnets made of copper-clad niobium-titanium were then developed in the
1960s at the Rutherford-Appleton Laboratory in the UK, and were first employed in a
superconducting accelerator at the Fermilab Tevatron in the US in 1987.In 1987, a ceramic
superconductor of the composition YBa2Cu3O7 was discovered which showed Tc equal to 90
K. In 1988, the value of Tc further shot up to about 125 K for thallium cuplates.
Figure (4.8) differentiates a conductor and superconductor when placed in a magnetic field.
B 0 (H M) 0
H M
Therefore, the susceptibility is given by
M
1 (4.1)
H
which is a perfect diamagnet.
Since the resistivity ( ) is zero for a perfect conductor, the application of Ohm’s law
(E J ) indicates that no electric field can exist inside the perfect conductor. Using
Maxwell’s equation
B
E
t
Hence B= constant
Thus magnetic flux density passing through a perfect conductor becomes constant.
This means that when a perfect conductor is cooled in the magnetic field until its resistance
becomes zero, the magnetic field of the material gets frozen in and cannot change
subsequently irrespective of the applied field. This is in contradiction to Meissner effect.
Hence the two mutually independent properties defining the superconductor state are the zero
resistivity and perfect diamagnetism.
The value of magnetic field at which the superconductivity vanishes is called threshold or the
critical field, Hc. Its value is few hundred oersteds for most of pure superconductors. The
critical temperature for superconductors is the temperature at which the electrical resistivity
of a metal drops to zero. The transition is so sudden and complete that it appears to be a
transition to a different phase of matter; this superconducting phase is described by the BCS
theory.
Several materials exhibit superconducting phase transitions at low temperatures. The highest
critical temperature was about 23 K until the discovery in 1986 of some high temperature
superconductors. Materials with critical temperatures in the range 120 K have received a
great deal of attention because they can be maintained in the superconducting state with
liquid nitrogen (77 K).The magnetic field is expressed by the relation. A typical plot of
critical magnetic field versus temperature for lead is shown in the figure (4.4). Such a plot is
also referred as the magnetic phase diagram. These types of cures are almost parabolic and
can be expressed by the relation
T2
Hc H c (0) 1 (4.2)
Tc2
Where Hc (0) is the critical field at 0 K. Thus, at the critical temperature, the critical field
becomes zero, i.e.,
H c (Tc ) 0
Figure 4.4: Variation of magnetic field with temperature
The superconductors which exhibit zero resistivity at low temperatures and have the property
of excluding magnetic fields from the interior of the superconductor (Meissner effect). They
are called Type I superconductors. The superconductivity exists only below their critical
temperatures and below a critical magnetic field strength. Type I superconductors are well
described by the BCS theory. These materials give away their superconductivity at lower
field strengths and are referred as soft superconductors. Figure (4.5) describes the behavior of
Lead, a type –I superconductor. These superconductor exhibit perfect diamagnetism below a
critical field Hc which for most of the cases is 0.1 tesla.
Figure 4.5: Type I Superconductor (Induced Magnetic Field Vs. Applied Magnetic
Field)
The Type 1 category of superconductors is mainly comprised of metals and metalloids that
show some conductivity at room temperature. They require incredible cold to slow down
molecular vibrations sufficiently to facilitate unimpeded electron flow in accordance with
what is known as BCS theory. BCS theory suggests that electrons team up in "Cooper pairs"
in order to help each other overcome molecular obstacles - much like race cars on a track
drafting each other in order to go faster. Scientists call this process phonon-mediated
coupling because of the sound packets generated by the flexing of the crystal lattice.
Type 1 superconductors - characterized as the "soft" superconductors - were discovered
first and require the coldest temperatures to become superconductive. They exhibit a very
sharp transition to a superconducting state and "perfect" diamagnetism - the ability to repel a
magnetic field completely. Table 4.2 shows various Type 1 superconductors along with the
critical transition temperature (known as Tc) below which each superconducts. The 3rd
column gives the lattice structure of the solid that produced the noted Tc.
QUIZ I :
Surprisingly, copper, silver and gold, three of the best metallic conductors, do not rank
among the superconductive elements. Why is this? Because for superconductivity to take
place free electrons should be more for making copper pairs but in these metals there is only
one free electron in outer shell. Moreover these have FCC structure and the atoms are so
tightly packed that there is no electron - phonon interactions.
Table 4.2: Critical temperature for various Type I Superconductors with Crystal
Structure
Many additional elements can be coaxed into a superconductive state with the application of
high pressure. For example, phosphorus appears to be the Type 1 element with the highest
Tc. But, it requires compression pressures of 2.5 Mbar to reach a Tc of 14-22 K. The above
list is for elements at normal (ambient) atmospheric pressure.
The Type 2 category of superconductors is comprised of metallic compounds and alloys. The
recently-discovered superconducting "perovskites" (metal-oxide ceramics that normally have
a ratio of 2 metal atoms to every 3 oxygen atoms) belong to this Type 2 group. They achieve
higher Tc's than Type 1 superconductors by a mechanism that is still not completely
understood. The first superconducting Type 2 compound, an alloy of lead and bismuth, was
fabricated in 1930 by W. de Haas and J. Voogd, but was recognized after the Meissner effect
had been discovered. This new category of superconductors was identified by L.V.
Shubnikov at the Kharkov Institute of Science and Technology in the Ukraine in 1936 found
two distinct critical magnetic fields (known as Hc1 and Hc2) in PbTl2. The first of the oxide
superconductors was created in 1973 by DuPont researcher Art Sleight when Ba(Pb,Bi)O3
was found to have a Tc of 13K. The superconducting oxocuprates followed in 1986. Table
4.2 shows the critical temperature for arious Type II superconductors with crystal structure.
Figure 4.6: Type II Superconductor (Induced Magnetic Field Vs. Applied Magnetic
Field)
Fig 4.6 describes the magnetization curve of Pb – Bi alloy. It follows from the curve that for
fields less than Hc1, the material behaves as perfect diamagnetic and no flux penetration
takes place. Thus for H< Hc1, the material exists in the superconducting state. As the field
exceeds Hc1, the flux begins to penetrate the specimen and for H= Hc2 the complete
penetration occurs and the material becomes normal conductor. The fields Hc1 and Hc2 are
called as lower and upper critical fields respectively. In the region between Hc1 and Hc2, the
diamagnetic behaviour of the material vanishes gradually and then the flux density B inside
the specimen remains non zero.
Table 4.2: Critical temperature for various Type I Superconductors with Crystal
Structure
Sn2Ba2(Y0.5Tm0.5)Cu3O8+ 96 K ORTH
Figure 4.7: Type I and Type II Superconductor (Induced Magnetic Field Vs. Applied
Magnetic Field)
Figure 4.8: Diagrammatic differentiation of a conductor and a superconductor
It was observed in the year 1950 that the transition temperatures of a superconductor
varies with its isotopic mass M as
1
2
Tc M (4.3)
Thus larger the isotopic mass, lower is the transition temperature. For example, the transition
temperature of mercury changes fro 4.185 K to 4.146 K when its isotopic mass is changed
from 199.5 to 203.4 amu.
Now it is known that the mean square amplitude of atomic or lattice variations at low
1
2
temperatures is proportional to M and the Debye temperature, D , of the phonon spectrum
is related to M as
1
2
M
D Cons tan t (4.4)
From Equation (4.3) and (4.4)
Tc
Cons tan t or (4.5)
D
1
2
Tc D M (4.6)
The equations (4.5) and (4.6) indicate that the lattice variations are likely to be
involved in causing superconductivity. This led Frohlich to show that two electrons in a metal
can effectively attract each other.
The electron – phonon interaction is the basis of the BCS theory. This was originally
suggested by Frohlich in 1950, but he could not explain superconductivity. When an electron
passes away near by adjacent ion, both interact electrostatically (means coulomb attraction
takes place). In this way momentum is imparted to ions which cause them to move together
due to elastic behaviour of lattice. This slight movement together increases the positive
charge density then propagates as a wave, which carries momentum through the lattice. In
this way the electron has emitted a phonon, the momentum carried by phonon has been
supplied by the electron, whose momentum changes when the phonon was emitted.
If now at this stage a second electron passes by the moving region of increased
positive density, it will experience an attractive coulomb interaction, and there by it can
absorb all the momentum, the moving region carries. Thus the second electron will absorb the
momentum supplied by the first electron. The result of this is that two electrons have
exchanged momentum through an interaction involving a phonon. This interaction of two
electrons via phonons exceeds the coulomb’s repulsions. The pair of these two electrons is
known as Copper Pairs.
Figure 4.9 : Electron - Electron interaction in a superconducting material
Figure 4.10: Electron – electron interaction via a phonon and formation of Copper pair
of a superconductor
Since superconductivity phenomenon is due to these copper pairs, which have binding
energy only of 10 kelvin, hence superconductivity is a low- temperature
phenomenon.
Two electrons are bound in a Copper pair but they are weakly bound and are in
continuous process of breaking and making new pairs with new patterns. The
electrons in a copper pair have opposite spins and the total spin of the pair is zero. As
a result the pairs behave as bosons (instead of fermions in conductors) and hence they
follow Bose –Einstein statistics. When there is no current in the superconductor, the
linear momentum of each electron of the copper pair is equal and opposite, to make
the sum zero. If all the pairs have same constant total momentum, then there will be
no inhibition to the unavoidable process of old pairs breaking up and new pairs
reforming. Thus a large number of pairs are present. All the pairs in same ground state
and form a single large giant system. The current in a superconductor involves this
whole system of pairs, each pair is now having non-zero momentum.
The BCS ground state is different from the normal ground state. In the normal
conductors the electron does not interact with each other but in case of
superconductivity the electrons interact and form copper pairs which are responsible
for the phenomenon of superconductivity. In case of non-interacting fermi gas all the
energy states above the fermi surface are vacant and below it, all the states are filled.
This filled state below fermi surface is the ground state of normal conductors. To
form an excited state, very small energy is required as the first excited state is just
above the fermi surface.
In case of superconductivity the electrons interact with each other attractively and
phonons mediate this interaction. This interacting fermi gas forms the BCS ground
state. This ground state is separated from lowest excited state by energy-gap Eg,
which is binding energy of copper pair. This energy gap is a function of temperature
unlike the energy-gap of semiconductors and insulators. The maximum energy-gap in
superconducting state occurs at 0 K, where pairing is complete and vanishes at T = Tc
where pairing also vanishes.
4.6 Applications
A SQUID
1. "Bottom-up" approach
2. "Top-down" approach
In the "bottom-up" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components
which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition. Top-down
approaches seek to create smaller devices by using larger ones to direct their assembly.
4.9 Nanowire
A nanowire is a nanostructure, with the diameter of the order of a nanometer (10−9 meters).
Alternatively, nanowires can be defined as structures that have a lateral size constrained to
tens of nanometers or less and an unconstrained longitudinal size. At these scales, quantum
mechanical effects are important — hence such wires are also known as "quantum wires".
Many different types of nanowires exist, including metallic (e.g., Ni, Pt, Au), semiconducting
(e.g., Si, InP, GaN, etc.), and insulating (e.g., SiO2,TiO2). Molecular nanowires are composed
of repeating molecular units either organic (e.g. DNA) or inorganic (e.g. Mo6S9-xIx).
Nanowire structures are grown through several common laboratory techniques including
suspension, deposition (electrochemical or otherwise), and VLS growth.
1. Suspension
1) The chemical etching or bombardment (typically with highly energetic ions) of a larger
wire.
2) Indenting the tip of a STM in the surface of a metal near its melting point, and then
retracting it.
2. Deposition
The source enters these nanoclusters and begins to saturate it. Once supersaturation is
reached, the source solidifies and grows outward from the nanocluster. The final product's
length can be adjusted by simply turning off the source. Compound nanowires with super-
lattices of alternating materials can be created by switching sources while still in the growth
phase. Inorganic nanowires such as Mo6S9-xIx(which are alternatively viewed as cluster
polymers) are synthesised in a single-step vapour phase reaction at elevated temperature.
Nanowires still belong to the experimental world of laboratories. However, they may
complement or replace carbon nanotubes in some applications.
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon with a nanostructure that can have a
length-to-diameter ratio greater than 10,000,000 and as high as 40,000,000 as of 2004. These
cylindrical carbon molecules have novel properties that make them potentially useful in many
applications in nanotechnology, electronics, optics and other fields of materials science, as
well as potential uses in architectural fields. They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique
electrical properties, and are efficient conductors of heat. Their final usage, however, may be
limited by their potential toxicity.Nanotubes are members of the fullerene structural family,
which also includes the spherical buckyballs. The cylindrical nanotube usually has at least
one end capped with a hemisphere of the buckyball structure. Their name is derived from
their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is in the order of a few nanometers
(approximately 1/50,000th of the width of a human hair), while they can be up to several
millimeters in length (as of 2008). Nanotubes are categorized as single-walled nanotubes
(SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs). The nature of the bonding of a nanotube is
described by applied quantum chemistry, specifically, orbital hybridization. The chemical
bonding of nanotubes is composed entirely of sp2 bonds, similar to those of graphite. This
bonding structure, which is stronger than the sp3 bonds found in diamonds, provides the
molecules with their unique strength. Nanotubes naturally align themselves into "ropes" held
together by Van der Waals forces. Under high pressure, nanotubes can merge together,
trading some sp² bonds for sp³ bonds, giving the possibility of producing strong, unlimited-
length wires through high-pressure nanotube linking.
4.10.1 Types of carbon nanotubes and related structures
Single-walled
n and m can be
zigzag
chiral (n, m) counted at the end of graphene nanoribbon
(n,0)
the tube
Most single-walled nanotubes (SWNT) have a diameter of close to 1 nanometer, with a tube
length that can be many thousands of times longer. The structure of a SWNT can be
conceptualized by wrapping a one-atom-thick layer of graphite called graphene into a
seamless cylinder. The way the graphene sheet is wrapped is represented by a pair of indices
(n,m) called the chiral vector. The integers n and m denote the number of unit vectors along
two directions in the honeycomb crystal lattice of graphene. If m=0, the nanotubes are called
"zigzag". If n=m, the nanotubes are called "armchair". Otherwise, when n is not equal to m,
they are called "chiral". Single-walled nanotubes are a very important variety of carbon
nanotube because they exhibit important electric properties that are not shared by the multi-
walled carbon nanotube (MWNT) variants.
The special nature of carbon combines with the molecular perfection of buckytubes (single-
wall carbon nanotubes) to endow them with exceptionally high material properties such as
electrical and thermal conductivity, strength, stiffness, and toughness. No other element in the
periodic table bonds to itself in an extended network with the strength of the carbon-carbon
bond. The delocalised pi-electron donated by each atom is free to move about the entire
structure, rather than stay home with its donor atom, giving rise to the first molecule with
metallic-type electrical conductivity. The high-frequency carbon-carbon bond vibrations
provide an intrinsic thermal conductivity higher than even diamond.In most materials,
however, the actual observed material properties - strength, electrical conductivity, etc. - are
degraded very substantially by the occurrence of defects in their structure. For example, high
strength steel typically fails at about 1% of its theoretical breaking strength. Buckytubes,
however, achieve values very close to their theoretical limits because of their perfection of
structure - their molecular perfection. This aspect is part of the unique story of buckytubes.
Buckytubes are an example of true nanotechnology: only a nanometer in diameter, but
molecules that can be manipulated chemically and physically. They open incredible
applications in materials, electronics, chemical processing and energy management.
(i)Field Emission
Buckytubes are the best known field emitters of any material. This is understandable, given
their high electrical conductivity, and the unbeatable sharpness of their tip (the sharper the
tip, the more concentrated will be an electric field, leading to field emission; this is the same
reason lightening rods are sharp). The sharpness of the tip also means that they emit at
especially low voltage, an important fact for building electrical devices that utilize this
feature. Buckytubes can carry an astonishingly high current density, possibly as high as 1013
A/cm2. An immediate application of this behaviour receiving considerable interest is in field-
emission flat-panel displays. Instead of a single electron gun, as in a traditional cathode ray
tube display, here there is a separate electron gun (or many) for each pixel in the display. The
high current density, low turn-on and operating voltage, and steady, long-lived behaviour
make buckytubes attract field emitters to enable this application. Other applications utilising
the field-emission characteristics of buckytubes include: general cold-cathode lighting
sources, lightning arrestors, and electron microscope sources.
Much of the history of plastics over the last half century has been as a replacement for metal.
For structural applications, plastics have made tremendous headway, but not where electrical
conductivity is required, plastics being famously good electrical insulators. This deficiency is
overcome by loading plastics up with conductive fillers, such as carbon black and graphite
fibres (the larger ones used to make golf clubs and tennis racquets). The loading required to
provide the necessary conductivity is typically high, however, resulting in heavy parts, and
more importantly, plastic parts whose structural properties are highly degraded. It is well
established that the higher aspect ratio of filler, the lower loading required to achieve a given
level of conductivity. Buckytubes are ideal in this sense, since they have the highest aspect
ratio of any carbon fibre. In addition, their natural tendency to form ropes provides inherently
very long conductive pathways even at ultra-low loadings. Applications that exploit this
behaviour of buckytubes include EMI/RFI shielding composites and coatings for enclosures,
gaskets, and other uses; electrostatic dissipation (ESD), and antistatic materials and (even
transparent!) coatings; and radar-absorbing materials.
(iii)Energy Storage
Buckytubes also have applications in a variety of fuel cell components. They have a number
of properties including high surface area and thermal conductivity that make them useful as
electrode catalyst supports in PEM fuel cells. They may also be used in gas diffusion layers
as well as current collectors because of their high electrical conductivity. Buckytubes' high
strength and toughness to weight characteristics may also prove valuable as part of composite
components in fuel cells that are deployed in transport applications where durability is
extremely important.
(iv)Molecular Electronics
The idea of building electronic circuits out of the essential building blocks of materials -
molecules - has seen a revival the past five years, and is a key component of nanotechnology.
In any electronic circuit, but particularly as dimensions shrink to the nanoscale, the
interconnections between switches and other active devices become increasingly important.
Their geometry, electrical conductivity, and ability to be precisely derived, make buckytubes
the ideal candidates for the connections in molecular electronics. In addition, they have been
demonstrated as switches themselves.
Fibres spun of pure buckytubes have recently been demonstrated [R.H. Baughman, Science
290, 1310 (2000)] and are undergoing rapid development, along with buckytube composite
fibres. Such super strong fibres will have applications including body and vehicle armour,
transmission line cables, woven fabrics and textiles.
(vi)Catalyst Supports
Buckytubes have an intrinsically high surface area; in fact, every atom is not just on a surface
- each atom is on two surfaces, the inside and outside! Combined with the ability to attach
essentially any chemical species to their sidewalls provides an opportunity for unique catalyst
supports. Their electrical conductivity may also be exploited in the search for new catalysts
and catalytic behaviour.
(vii)Biomedical Applications
(viii)Other Applications
There is a wealth of other potential applications for buckytubes, such as solar collection;
nanoporous filters; catalyst supports; and coatings of all sorts. There are almost certainly
many unanticipated applications for this remarkable material that will come to light in the
years ahead and which may prove to be the most important and valuable of all.
4.11 Nanocrystals
Fahlman, B. D. has described a nanocrystal as any nanomaterial with at least one dimension
≤ 100nm and that is singlecrystalline. More properly, any material with a dimension of less
than 1 micrometre, i.e., 1000 nanometers, should be referred to as a nanoparticle, not a
nanocrystal. For example, any particle which exhibits regions of crystallinity should be
termed nanoparticle or nanocluster based on dimensions. These materials are of huge
technological interest since many of their electrical and thermodynamic properties show
strong size dependence and can therefore be controlled through careful manufacturing
processes. Crystalline nanoparticles are also of interest because they often provide single-
domain crystalline systems that can be studied to provide information that can help explain
the behaviour of macroscopic samples of similar materials, without the complicating presence
of grain boundaries and other defects. Semiconductor nanocrystals in the sub-10nm size
range are often referred to as quantum dots. Crystalline nanoparticles made with zeolite are
used as a filter to turn crude oil onto diesel fuel at an ExxonMobil oil refinery in Louisiana, a
method cheaper than the conventional way. A layer of crystalline nanoparticles is used in a
new type of solar panel named SolarPly made by Nanosolar. It is cheaper than other solar
panels, more flexible, and claims 12% efficiency. (Conventionally inexpensive organic solar
panels convert 9% of the sun's energy into electricity.) Crystal tetrapods 40 nanometers wide
convert photons into electricity, but only have 3% efficiency. (Source: National Geographic
June 2006)
Quantum Dots, also known as nanocrystals, are a non-traditional type of semiconductor with
limitless applications as an enabling material across many industries. Each of Evident
Technologies' quantum dot product lines have a specified, unique composition and size that
give them novel quantum properties waiting to be exploited.
Traditional semiconductors have a shortcoming that they lack versatility. Their optical and
electronic qualities are costly to adjust, because their bandgap cannot be easily changed.
Their emission frequencies cannot be easily manipulated by engineering. EviDots exist in a
quantum world, one where properties are specified by our customers. Evident's unique
technology allows us to make semiconductors with tunable bandgaps, allowing for unique
optical and electronic properties and a broad range of emission frequencies limited only by
our imagination, not by cost.
Quantum dots are unparalleled in versatility and flexible in form. As small crystals, they can
be mixed into liquid solution, making them ideal for fluorescent tagging in biological
applications. As quantum dust, they perform as an innovative security taggant, adhering
invisibly to trespassers while emitting an infrared signal giving law enforcement the edge. In
bead form, they can be blended into ink, making for an excellent anti-counterfeiting pigment.
EviDots can be made into a film possessing legendary non-linear performance for
applications such as photonic switching, optical signal conditioning, and mode-locking lasers.
When drawn into fibers, they may serve as Homeland Security devices, detecting radiation
and helping fight terrorism.
Questions
1. The actual energy gap at 0K in lead is 4.37 × 10-22 J. a) What is the critical
temperature according to BCS theory? B) radiation of what maximum wavelength
could break apart cooper pairs in lead at 0K? Ans: ( (a) 8.96 K (b) 4.545 x 10 -
4
m)
2. The critical temperature for mercury with isotopic mass when its critical temperature
changes to 4.15K Ans: (202.7)
3. Lead in a superconducting state has critical temperature of 6.2K at zero magnetic field
and critical field H C 0 0.064MAm 1 at 0K. Calculate the critical field at a) 2K, b)
2.5K & c) 3K. Discuss the result. Ans: ( (a) 2 K (b) 2.5 K (c)0.049 )
4. The area of a coil of 25 turns is 1.6cm2. This coil is inserted in 0.3s in a magnetic field
of 1.8T such that its plane is perpendicular to the flux lines of the field. Calculate the
emf induced in the coil. Also, calculate the total charge that passes through the wire, if
its resistance is 10Ω. Ans: (2.4 x 10 -2 V, 7.2x 10 -4 C)