1

Klein

- Klein
, Klein (~1870)

,
.
, ,
Hilbert , .
,
,
:
1. .
2. (
. )
Rn.
. (.
. ) Minkowski
.

KLEIN

() {f / f : X X f "1 - 1" } .
, ()
.
:

Klein

f () f-1 , 1-1
f f-1=idx idx(x)=x x X 1-1
.
,
f , g 1-1 , f g 1-1
f g .

idx f = f id x = f

f X

() , (G, ).

Klein:
(G,) , Klein
, (G, ) (() , ).
Klein;
Klein .
(:=
)
G .
G;

G , f()
f G.
:

Klein

J (:=)
( P(X) )

(J)={A P(X) : J(A) }
J f : X X
f(A) (J).
: J G
, f G.


G .
,

:
:
,

.
, ( u ,
f ,
u =: f(u) )
.

Klein

, ,
,
:
() ={f/f :X X f 1-1 f , f-1 }
, ((), )
((), )
(
)
((), ) .
,
.

()
( 1-1
.)

d ,

. ,
d .
f :
, .
( f : ,
(d(f(x), f(y))=d(x,y) x, y X )

Klein

1-1 (
: f(x)=f(y)
0=d(f(x), f(y))=d(x,y) x=y )

, :
d(X) = {f / f

: X X f

& }

() ( )
(Id(X) , X) ,
,
( , d)

Id(X) .
( , >0 : d(x,y)< x,y X.
d(f(x), f(y))=d(x,y)

d(f(x), f(y))< .

- Klein .
:
,

. :
180 .

.

Klein

. ...
, ,

.
..

,
,
.


. :
,
.
, :
,
. ,

.
,
, .
, dE

, ,

Klein

, d E ) ,

d (

),

:
2

1 ,2

f :

f(1)=2

Klein

, 1 2
, g 1
2
.

g(1)= 2

g:

~ 1~ 2

.
: ~
:
:
1()=

,
1 :

1 G

. : S(X) .

1~ 2 .

g : g(1 ) =2 . g

1-1 , ,

g 1 g 1 g (1 ) = g 1 ( 2 )
1 (1 ) = g 1 ( 2 )
1 = g 1 ( 2 )
2 ~ 1

Klein

g-1 G , G

S(X)

~ ,

1 ~ 2 2 ~ 3
g1 , g 2 G : g1 (1 ) = 2
g 2 ( 2 ) = 3 . T , g 2 g1 (1 ) =
g 2 ( g1 (1 )) = g 2 ( 2 ) = 3
1 ~ 3

g 2 g1 G g1 g2

G
.
,
G , .
;
,
g

.

Rn n >3 .
Rn n
.

10

Klein

Rn .
;
,
,
:
f: V V ,
[ , ] V , ( [, ]=[f(x),f()] , V)

:
:
F(x+)=f()+f()

f()=f()

,
: [f() f(x) , f()- f()]=0 . (1)
,
(1)

f()- f()=0

f()= f().

, :
[f() f(x) , f()- f()]=
[ f() , f()- f()]-[ f(x) , f()- f()]=
[f() , f()]-[ f() , f()]-[ f(x) , f()]+[ f(x) , f()]=
[f() , f()]-[ f() , f()]-[ f(x) , f()]+2[ f(x) , f()] =
[ ,]-[ f() , f()]-[f() , f(x)]+2[ f(x) , f()] =

11

Klein

2[ , ]-2[ , ]+2[ x , ] = ( .
)
22[ , ]-2[ , ] =
22[ , ]-22[ , ] = 0
,
[f(+) f(x)-f() , f(+) f(x)-f() ]=0

(2)

, (2) ,
, (2)

f(+) f(x)-f() =0

f(+) =f(x)+f()

, :
[f(+) f(x)-f() , f(+) f(x)-f() ]=
[f(+), f(+) f(x)-f() ]+[ f(x)-f(), f(+) f(x)-f() ]=
[f(+), f(+)]+[ f(+) , f(x)-f()] +[f(x)-f() f(x)-f()]
+[f(x)-f(), f(+)]=
[+,+]-[+,]-[+,]+(-1)2[+f(x)+f() ,+f(x)+f()]=
[+,+]-[+,]-[+,]+ [+f(x) ,+f(x)+f()] +[f()
,+f(x)+f()]=
[+,+]-[+,]-[+,]+ [f(x) ,f(x)][ f(x),f()] +[f()
,+f(x)]+[ f() ,f()]=
[+,+]-[+,]-[+,]+ [x ,x]+[ x,] +[,x]+[ ,]=
[+,+]-[+,]-[+,]+ [x ,x]+[ x,] +[,x]+[ ,]=

12

Klein

[,]+[,]+[,]+[,]-[,]-[,]-[,]-[,]-[,]-[,]+
[x ,x]+[ x,] +[,x]+[ ,]=0

.--

[,] f f:X X ,
:
() f
() f f(0)=0
:

( ) > ( )
&
:
f(0+0)=f(0)+f(0)
f(0)=f(0)+f(0)
f(0)=0

( ) > ( )
f ,
.

13

Klein

,
, !
, , f
.
:

f ( x ) f ( y ) = x y x, y X (1)
=0 (1) :

f ( x ) f (0) = x 0 x, 0 X ( f(0)=0 )
f ( x ) 0 = x 0 x , 0 X
f ( x) = x

x, X f .

, y

X :

14

Klein
2

[ f ( x ) f ( y ), f ( x ) f ( y )] = f ( x ) f ( y ) =
2

x y =
[ x y, x y ] =
[ x, x ] 2[ x, y ] + [ y , y ] =
2

x 2[ x, y ] + y = ( f )
2

f ( x ) 2[ x, y ] + f ( y )

:
2

[ f ( x ) f ( y ), f ( x ) f ( y )] = f ( x ) 2[ x, y ] + f ( y )

(*)
:

[ f (x) f ( y), f (x) f ( y)] = [ f (x), f (x)] 2[ f (x), f ( y)] +[ f ( y), f ( y)] =
2

f (x) 2[ f (x), f ( y)] + f (x) (**)

(*) (**) :


[f(x),f(y)]=[x,y] f ,
.---

15

Klein

a V "1 1" f a : V > V

,
fa ( x) = x + a

d ( f a ( x ), f a ( y )) = f a ( x ) f a ( y ) = ( x + a ) ( y + a ) =
x y = d ( x, y )
:
f:V V , (
1-1 )

(V, E) .
f: V V :
g: V V f :V V
: f=f g .
:
g(x) =f(x)-f(0) .
. g :
x=0 , g(0)=f(0)-f(0) , g(0)=0 .
:

16

Klein

g ( x ) g ( y ) = ( f ( x ) + f (0)) ( f ( y ) + f (0)) =
f ( x) f ( y ) = x y
g .
, g .
.

f : = f(0).

g
f , :
( f g)(x) = f(g(x))= g(x)+f(0)= f(x) x V
g
f
:

, g1 fb
:
g1 fb =f

:f(x)=f(x)

(g1 fb)() =( f g)(x)

g1()+b =g(x)+a

(1)

17

Klein

g g1 ,
g1(0)=0= g(0) (1) :
0+=0+b a=b.
g1()= g(x) V.
.
,
, nxn
g
V.

dimV=n :

x1 a11 a1n x1 a11 x1 a1n xn

= x

g =
1

x a

amn xn am1
amn xn
n m1

: f: V V
,

x = f ( x)

x V

f , :

x 0 = f ( x ) f (0)

x V

f , f(0)=0

18

Klein

x 0 = f ( x) 0

x V

x = f ( x)

x V

x = f ( x)

x V , x-y

f ( x y) = x y

( f )

f ( x ) f ( y ) = x y ( f )

g : R2 R2
(22) :

x a ax + y
=

g =

y y +
g ( x, y ) = (ax + y , + y )

19

Klein

, :

( x, y ) = ax + y , + y

x 2 + y 2 = ( ax + y ) 2 + ( + y ) 2 x, y R

, y , :
(2 +2-1=0 , 2 +2-1=0
(=

, =

, + =0 )
2 +2=1)

(2)

(2)
R2 :

a
,

2
2
,

+
=1

,
=(b,c)
E
f: R2 R2 :

20

Klein

x a b ax y + b
+ =
f =

+
y
y
c
y
c

x a b ax y + b
f =

+ =

y y c + y + c
2

2
1
+
=

= = b=c=0 .
:

x
f =
y

.
=1 , =0 ,
f(x,y)=(x,y)+(b,c)
=1 , =0 b=c=0
f(x,y)=(x,-y).
,

, .
, f(x,yi)=g(x,yi) i=1,2,3 , f=g.

21

Klein

, , b, c

.
, ,

.


.-