THE TISSUES OF THE

BODY -
THE EPITHELIUM

DR IRAM IQBAL
 TISSUES
Tissues are aggregates or groups of
cells organized to perform one or
more specific functions.
4 types of basic tissues
Epithelium
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nerve tissue
 EPITHELIUM
Epithelium is an avascular tissue.

Composed of cells that cover the exterior

body surfaces and line internal closed
cavities (including the vascular system)
and body tubes that communicate with
the exterior (the alimentary, respiratory,
and genitourinary tracts).
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Connective tissue consist of cells and

extracellular matrix that includes
structural (fibers) and specialized
proteins that constitutes the ground
substance.
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Cell Cell
nucleus
Collagen
fiber
Collagen
Other fibers
fibers
A. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE D. FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
(under the skin) (forming a ligament)

Fat
droplets
Cells

Cell Matrix
nucleus

B. ADIPOSE TISSUE E. CARTILAGE

(at the end of a bone)
White blood
cells Central
canal
Red blood Matrix
cells
Cells
Plasma

C. BLOOD F. BONE
 MUSCULAR TISSUE

• Muscular tissue is characterized by

aggregates of specialized , elongated
cells arranged in parallel array whose
primary role is contraction.
 MUSCULAR TISSUE

CARDIAC
MUSCLE

SKELETAL
MUSCLE

SMOOTH
MUSCLE
 Nervous Tissue
• Densely packed tissue having
Two main cell types
• Neurons – transmit electrical signals
• Support cells (neuroglial cells) – nonexcitable
– Surround and wrap neurons
NERVOUS TISSUE

Nucleu
s

Cell body

Cell
extensions
EPITHELIUM
An epithelium can be defined as the
layered collection of adherent cells,
with very little intercellular material,
usually covering internal & external
surfaces of the body.
 CHARACTERISTICS

• Avascular tissue
• Forms the secretary portion
(Parenchyma) of Glands and Ducts
• Receptors for certain Sensory Organs
• Closely opposed adhere to each other
by junctions
 Epithelium is found everywhere

Simple
squamous
Stratified
Epithelium lines
squamous
alveoli in lungs.
Epithelium
lines the
esophagus.
Simple cuboidal
Epithelium
Forms tubes in
kidneys.

Simple columnar
Epithelium lines
the intestine.
In addition, specialized epithelial cells function as
receptors for the special senses (smell, taste,
hearing, and vision).
 Epithelium also forms the secretory
portion (parenchyma) of glands and their
ducts.
 EPITHELOID TISSUES

• Certain special situations

• Epithelial cells lack free surface
• Found aggregated in to each other
• Closed apposition and BM is present but no free surface
hence epithelial like
• Examples
- Interstitial cells of leydig (testis)
- Luteal cells (ovary)
- Parenchyma of adrenal glands
- Epithelioreticular cells (thymus)
- Pathologic responses to injury and tumors
Functions of epithelium
 FUNCTIONS

Depend upon the activity of cell type

• Selective barrier
- Forms a continuous sheet like
investment separating CT from
internal and external environment
- Fascilitates or inhibits certain substances
between the two compartments
(metabolites and waste material pass
through it not between them)
- Impervious barrier (urinary bladder)
• Secretory (Stomach)
• Both Secretory and Absortive (intestine)
• Transport system through motile Cilia
on its surface (particulates/mucus in
Trachea and Bronchi)
• Serve to receive Sensory Stimuli (Taste
Buds of Tongue or Retina of Eye)
 How are epithelia
classified?
Depends on number of layers

One layer Special 2 or more

layers

SIMPLE PSEUDOSTRATIFIED

TRANSITIONAL STRATIFIED
The individual cells that compose
an epithelium
Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar
Importance of layering
Simple squamous epithelium
Locations Major functions
Vascular system Exchange, barrier in
(endothelium) CNS
Body cavities Exchange &
(mesothelium) lubrication
Bowman’s capsule Barrier
(kidney)
Respiratory spaces
in lungs Exchange
Endothelium
Mesothelium
Respiratory spaces
Bowman’s capsule
Simple Squamous Epithelium 100X
1 cell

Adjacent cell
membranes held
together with tight
junctions
Nucleus

Single layer of flat

Methylene blue cells
Simple Squamous Epithelium 400X
1 cell

Silver Single layer of flat

Simple cuboidal epithelium
Locations Major functions
Small ducts of Absorption, conduit
exocrine glands
Surface of ovary Barrier
(germinal
epithelium)
Absorption & secretion
Kidney tubule
Ducts of exocrine glands
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium 400X

Cells

Single layer of cube shaped cells; large

Simple columnar epithelium
Locations Major functions
Small intestine & Absorption & secretion
colon
Secretion

Stomach lining &

gastric glands
Absorption

Gallbladder
Simple Columnar Epithelium 400X

Single layer
columnar cells
nuclei in a line

Kidney collecting duct

Simple Columnar Epithelium 1000X

Single layer of cube shaped cells; large nucleus

Simple Columnar Epithelium 400X

Stomach
 SPECIAL CATEGORIES OF
EPITHELIUM

PSEUDOSTRATIFIED EPITHELIUM
• Actually a simple epithelium
• All rest on BM
• Some cells do not reach the surface
• Appearance of being stratified
• Limited distribution
Pseudostratified epithelium
Locations Major functions
Trachea & Secretion, conduit
bronchial tree
Ductus deferens

Efferent ductules of Absorption, conduit

epididymis
 Trachea (monkey) 400X
Goblet cell
Pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium

Lamina propria

Smooth muscle

Seromucous glands
 Stratified squamous
epithelium
Locations Major functions
Epidermis Barrier
Oral cavity & Protection
oesophagus
Vagina
Stratified squamous epithelium,
oesophagus (non-keratinized)
Stratified Squamous Epithelium 400X
(keratinized)
Squamous cells

Skin epidermis

Dermis

Outermost layers of cells are

squamous shape
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
(keratinized)
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
Locations Major functions
Sweat gland ducts Barrier
Large ducts of Conduit
exocrine glands
Anorectal junction
Growing follicles in
ovary
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium 400X

2 layers of cuboidal cells

Stratified Cuboidal Ovary follicle
Stratified columnar epithelium
Locations Major functions
Largest ducts of Barrier
exocrine glands Conduit
Anorectal junction
Stratified Columnar, sweat gland
duct
 SPECIAL CATEGORIES OF
EPITHELIUM

TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM (UROTHELIUM)

• Stratified epithelium
• Specific morphologic characteristics
• Functionally accommodates well to distension
• Lower urinary tract extending from the minor
calyces of the kidney down to the proximal part of
the urethra.
 Transitional epithelium
(urothelium)
Locations Major functions
Renal calyces Barrier
Ureters Distensible
Bladder property
Urethra
Transitional epithelium
 Distended
bladder

Empty bladder
 SPECIAL TYPES OF EPITHELIUM

1.NEURO-EPITHELIAL CELLS
Examples:
Sense organs like taste buds

2.MYO-EPITHELIAL CELLS
Examples
Secretory acini of Mammary, Salivary glands
 Epithelial Feature!
(name and location on cell)

3
Tight junction 1
1
2 Microvilli 2

Cilia 3

Basement
4
membrane
4
 CELL POLARITY
• Cells whose apex differs from it,s base regarding
the modification of plasmalemma and function is
called as polarized cell.
• Epithelial cells exhibit distinct polarity
• They have an;
Apical domain
Lateral domain
Basal domain
 APICAL DOMAIN & ITS
MODIFICATIONS
Structural surface modifications include
microvilli, stereocilia & cilia.

Apical domain may contain specific

enzymes (e.g., hydrolases), ion
channels & carrier proteins (e.g.,
glucose transporters).
 MICROVILLI
Finger-like cytoplasmic projections on the
surface of most epithelial cells.

Vary widely in appearance.

Short, irregular, bleb-like projections
Tall, closely packed, uniform projections

Number & shape of the microvilli of a given

cell type correlate with its absorptive capacity.
Intestinal absorptive cells/striated
border
 Electron micrographs showing
variations in microvilli of different cell
types
Molecular structure of microvilli
 STEREOCILIA
Unusually long, immotile microvilli.
Also termed stereovilli.
Not widely distributed among epithelia.
Limited to:
Epididymis
Proximal part of the ductus deferens of the
male reproductive system
Sensory (hair) cells of the ear
 Electron micrographs showing
variations in stereovilli of different cell
types
Sterocilia of the sensory epithelium of the ear are uniform in
diameter and possess an internal structure similar to that of
genital duct sterocilia however they lack both erzin and a-
actinin, and serve as sensory receptors rather than absorptive
structure
 CILIA
Motile cytoplasmic structures capable
of moving fluid & particles along epithelial
surfaces.
Hair like structures .25um in diameter and
2um-10um in length.
Location:
Trachea
Bronchi
Oviducts
78
 Cilia contain an organized core of
microtubules arranged in a 9+2 pattern
Molecular structure of cilia

Microtubule-associated motor protein

Cilia develop from procentrioles
Electron micrograph of the cilia
Microvillia vs cilia
Microvillia vs cilia, SEM
 EPITHELIAL CELL ADHESIONS

• Epithelial cell not only in close apposition but

also adherent (with exceptions)
• Before electron microscopy it was referred as
intercellular cement and called Terminal Bar
JUNCTIONAL COMPLEX
• Specific structural components that make up the
barrier and attachment device
• Creat a long term behavior, compartmentalize
and effects passage from and through the cells
-
 LATERAL DOMAIN & ITS
SPECIALIZATIONS
3 types of junctional complexes in lateral
domain i.e.,
occluding junctions
anchoring junctions
communicating junctions.
In addition, lateral cell surface membrane in
some epithelia may form folds & processes,
invaginations & evaginations that create
interdigitating & interleaving tongue-and-
groove margins between neighbouring cells.
 Zonula occludens
Also called “tight junctions”.
Located at the most apical point.
Forms a ring or circumferential band
Created by localized sealing of adjacent plasma
membranes.
Separates Luminal space from intercellular
space and CT
Limit the movement of water & other molecules.
• Maintain the integrity of apical & lateral surfaces.
 At high resolution ,
• Zonula occludens appear not as a continuous
seal but as a series of focal fusion b/w the
cells.
• These focal fusions are created by
transmembrane proteins of adjoining cells
that join in the intercellular space.
• Best visualized by freeze fracture technique.
• The ridges & grooves are arranged as a
network of anastomosing particle strands thus
creating a functional seal within the
intercellular space.
Molecular organization of zonula
occludens
 Junctional adhesion molecule,
associated with claudin ,involved in
formation of occludens junction in
endothelial cells

Claudin form backbone of each

strand
Junctional adhesion molecule,
associated with claudin ,involved in
formation of occludens junction in
endothelial cells
 Freeze fracture preparation of zonula
occludens

E-face reveals complementary grooves

P-face reveals ridge like structures for junctional
proteins
 The zonula occludens separates the
luminal space from the intercellular space
& connective tissue compartment
• It is now evident that the zonula occludens play a
essential role in selective passage of substances
from one side of epithelium to the other.
• Creating a diffusion barrier which is controlled by
2 pathways.
– The transcellular pathway
• Occur across the plasma membrane of the epithelial cell
• Requires specialized energy-dependent membrane
transport proteins and channels
– The paracellular pathway
• Occur across the zonula occludens b/w 2 epithelial cells
Paracellular pathway
Transcellular pathway
• CLAUDINS not only form the backbone
of the Zonula Occludens strand but also
are responsible for the formation of
extracellular aqueous channels that
control the tightness of the seal b/w
cells.
ANCHORING JUNCTIONS
Provide lateral adhesions between epithelial
cells, using proteins that link into the cytoskeleton
of the adjacent cells.
Band or belt like configuration around the cell
2 types of anchoring cell-to-cell junctions can be
identified on the lateral surface.
Zonula adherens,
Which interacts with the network of actin filaments
inside the cell.
Macula adherens/desmosomes
Which interacts with intermediate filaments inside
the cell.
ZONULA ADHERENS
 ZONULA ADHERENS
Homotypic binding, occur b/w Heterotypic binding, If the
CAMs of the same type binding occur b/w diff type
of CAMs
 The integrity of the epithelial surface depends in large
part on the lateral adhesion of the cells with one
another and their ability to resist separation.

Homotypic binding
The morphologic and
functional integrity of zonula
adherens is Ca dependent 15-20nm
CAMs

Fuzzy plaque
DESMOSOMES/MACULA ADHERENS
• Gr. Desmo-bond, Soma-
body (L. Macula- spot)
• Strong attachment structure
on the lateral sides
• In epidermal cells only
desmosomes present
• other epithelia
cuboidal/columnar all others
present
• Localized sites on cell
surface(not continuous
around cell)
• Intercellular space is wider
then others
MACULA ADHERENS/
DESMOSOMES
Molecular structure of macula
adherens
Desmosomal attachment
plaque(desmoplakins,plakoglobin
)

30nm

Transmembrane glycoproteins Ca dependent

 COMMUNICATING
JUNCTIONS
“Gap junctions” or “nexus”.

Present in wide variety of tissues, including

epithelia, smooth & cardiac muscle, & nerves.
Consist of an accumulation of transmembrane
channels or pores in a tightly packed array.
Also called “low resistance junctions”.
COMMUNICATING
JUNCTIONS
• Along the lateral membranes
• Aposition of adjacent cell
membranes (2nm)
• Individual unit – Connexons
• Each gap junction is formed by
tens/hundreds of Connexons
• Each Connexon formed by six gap
junction protiens – Connexins
• Harmones,AMP,GMP can pass
through (<1500 Da)
Structure of gap
junctions:
Open & closed states of gap junctions
Gap junctions allow cells to exchange ions,
regulatory molecules, & small metabolites
through the pores
 Electron micrograph showing the plasma
membranes of the 2 adjoining cells forming
a gap junction.
 MORPHOLOGICAL
SPECIALIZATIONS OF LATERAL
SURFACE
Lateral surface folds (plicae) create
interdigitating cytoplasmic processes of
adjoining cells.

Increase lateral surface area of the cell.

Particularly prominent in epithelia that are

engaged in fluid & electrolyte transport, such as
intestinal & gallbladder epithelium.
 BASAL DOMAIN & ITS
SPECIALIZATIONS
Basement membrane: Located next to basal surface

Cell-to-extracellular matrix junction: Anchor cell to

extracellular matrix

Plasma membrane infoldings: Increase surface area &

facilitate morphological interactions between adjacent
cells.
 Basal lamina
EM examination of the site of the basement
membranes reveals a discrete layer of electron
dense matrix material 40-60nm thick between the
epithelium & adjacent connective tissue called the
“basal lamina” or, sometimes “lamina densa”.

Between the basal lamina & the cell is a relatively

clear or electron-lucent area, the “lamina lucida”
(also about 40nm wide).
“LAMINA DENSA” & “LAMINA
LUCIDA”
 BASEMENT MEMBRANE
• Epithelium attached to underlying CT
• Layer of variable thickness at the basal surfaces
• Periodic acid Schiff technique is implied
BASAL LAMINA (LAMINA DENSA)
• Discrete layer of electron dense material between
epithelium and adjacent CT
BY ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
• Between Basal lamina and cell is Lamina Lucida
• Between Basal lamina and CT is Microfibrils (Type VII
collagen) attached to the Reticular fibres of CT
RETICULAR LAMINA
• Reticular fibres (Type III Collagen) beneath Basal Lamina
• Part of CT
• Some investigators contend that its part of Basal Lamina
 COMPONENTS OF BASAL
LAMINA
Consists of at least five components
• Collagen (type IV collagen) provide structural
integrity to Basal lamina
• Proteoglycans much of the bulk volume of
Basal lamina
• Laminin (glycoprotein molecule) bridges the
Lamina Lucida to the overlying epithelial cells
• Enactin and Fibronectin role not clear
• Anchoring filaments (Type VII collagen) link
Basal Lamina to underlying CT (Reticular
Lamina
Several structures are responsible for attachment
of the basal lamina to the underlying connective
tissue.
 FUNCTION
• Not fully ellucidated
• Structural attachment site for the overlying
cells and underlying CT
• Compartmentalization Separations/isolation of
CT from epithelia ,Nerves ,muscle tissue
• Filtration movement of substances to and from
the tissues (ionic charges and integral
spaces), kidney
• Tissue scaffolding serves as a guide during
regeneration. Newly formed cells help to
maintain original tissue architecture
FUNCTION
S OF
BASAL
LAMINA
 Cell-to-extracellular matrix
junction
2 major anchoring junctions are;

Focal adhesions: Anchor actin filaments of

the cytoskeleton into the basement membrane.

Hemidesmosomes: Anchor intermediate

filaments of the cytoskeleton into the basement
membrane.
FOCAL ADHESIONS
HEMIDESMOSOMES
Plasma membrane
infoldings
References:
Text And Atlas Of Histology By MICHAEL
H. ROSS 5th Edition
BAILEY’S Textbook Of Microscopic
Anatomy 18th Edition
Textbook Of Histology By LEESON,
LEESON, PAPARO
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