FUNDAMENTALS OF ANATOMY: GENERAL HISTOLOGY

OBJECTIVES

 differentiate the four types of tissue structurally and functionally

 determine the specific type of tissues given a part of the body

TISSUES

 group of cells with similar structure and function

 histology – study of tissue
 pathologist – specialist who examines cells and tissues to reach accurate diagnoses
 four basic tissue types: epithelial tissues, connective tissues, muscular tissues, nervous tissues

DEVELOPMENT OF TISSUES

 tissues of the body develop from three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and
mesoderm
 epithelial tissues develops from all three germ layers
 connective tissue and most muscle tissues derive from mesoderm
 nervous tissue develops from ectoderm

Endoderm (Inner Layer)

 lung cells (alveolar)

 thyroid cells
 digestive cells

Mesoderm (Middle Layer)

 cardiac muscle
 skeletal muscle
 tubule cells
 red blood cells
 smooth muscle

Ectoderm (Outer Layer)

 skin cells
 neurons (nerves)
 pigment cells

CELL JUNCTIONS

 contact points between the plasma membrane of tissue cells

 five types of cell junctions: tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes,
gap junctions

EPITHELIAL TISSUES (EPITHELIUM)

 consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in either single layer or multiple layers.
 o closely packed and held tightly
o form covering and lining of the body
o always have free surface
 five major functions:
o protecting underlying structures
o acting as a barrier
o permitting the passage of substance
o secreting substance
o absorbing substance

Epithelial Cells

 have own nerve supply

 avascular (lack of blood vessels) – relying on blood vessels of the adjacent connective tissues for
nutrients and removal of waste
 high rate of cell division for renew and repair
 two types of epithelium: covering and lining and glandular epithelium

Surfaces of Epithelial Cells

 various surfaces of epithelial cells differ from structures and functions

 apical (free) surface – faces the body surface, body cavity, lumen, or tubular duct
 lateral surface – faces the adjacent cells
 basal surface – adheres to basement membrane

Basement Membrane

 thin, double extracellular layer found between epithelial and connective tissue
 point of attachment and support of overlying epithelial tissue
 two layers of basal membrane:
o basal lamina – closer to and secreted by epithelial cell
o reticular lamina – closer to underlying connective tissue

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Covering and Lining Epithelium

 normally classified according to layers and shape

 Arrangement of Cells into Layers
o consist of one or more layers depending on functions
o Simple Epithelium
 single layer of cells that functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, or
absorption
o Pseudostratified Epithelium
 appears to have multiple layers because cells lie at different level
o Stratified Epithelium
  consist of two or more layers of cells for location with considerable wear and
tear
 Shapes of Cells
o shape varies depending on functions
o Squamous Cells
 thin and flat cells
 allows rapid passage of substance
o Cuboidal Cells
 cubes or hexagon
 may have microvilli
 secretion and absorption
o Columnar Cells
 column
 may have cilia or microvilli
 secretion and absorption
o Transitional Cells
 change shape, from squamous to cuboidal and back
 Simple Epithelium
o Simple Squamous Epithelium
 single layer of flat cells
 nucleus is located centrally and appears flattened oval sphere
 found at sites of filtration or diffusion and at sites of secretion of serous
membrane
 location:
 endothelium – heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels lining
 mesothelium – epithelial layer of serous membrane
o Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
 single layer of cube-shaped cells
 centrally located round nucleus
 location:
 surface of ovary
 anterior surface of capsule of lens of eye
 pigmented epithelium of posterior surface of retina
 kidney tubules
 secreting portion of thyroid gland
 duct of pancreas
o Non-ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium
 single layer of non-ciliated column like cells
 oval nuclei near basal surface
 apical surface contains:
 epithelial cells with microvilli – fingerlike cytoplasmic projections
 goblet cells – secretes mucus
 location:
 lines gastrointestinal tract
  ducts of many glands
 gall bladder
o Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium
 single layer of ciliated column like cells
 oval nuclei near basal surface
 goblet cells are scattered
 location:
 bronchioles of respiratory tract
 uterine (fallopian) tube
 uterus
 some paranasal sinuses
 central canal of spinal cord
 ventricles of brain
o Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
 appears to have several layers
 cell nuclei are at various levels
 ciliated – goblet cells and cilia
 upper respiratory tract
 non-ciliated – lack of goblet cells and without cilia
 larger ducts of many glands
 epididymis
 part or male urethra
 Stratified Epithelium
o Stratified Squamous Epithelium
 several layers of flattened squamous cell at apical surface
 new cells push upward toward apical layer
 as cells move away from blood supply they dehydrate, harden, and die
 keratinized form contains fibrous protein keratin
 superficial layer of skin
 non-keratinized form does not contain keratin and moistened by mucus
 mouth
 esophagus
 part of epiglottis
 part of pharynx
 vagina
 tongue
o Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
 two or layers of cells with cube-shaped cells at apical surface
 fairly rare type
 location:
 ducts of adults sweat glands
 esophageal glands
 part of male urethra
 o Stratified Columnar Epithelium
 only apical layers have columnar cells
 basal layers have shortened, irregularly shaped cells
 uncommon
 location:
 part of urethra
 large excretory ducts of some glands (esophageal glands)
 anal mucous membrane
 part of conjunctiva
o Transitional Epithelium
 variable appearance
 relaxed – stratified cuboidal epithelium
 stretched – stratified squamous epithelium
 ideal for hollow structures subjected to expansion
 location:
 urinary bladder

Glandular Epithelium

 main function of glandular epithelium is secretion, accomplished by the glandular cells that lie in
clusters
 Glands
o consist of single cell or group of cells that secrete substances into ducts, onto surface, or
into the blood
o Endocrine Glands
 called hormones
 enter the interstitial fluid and diffuse directly into the bloodstream without
flowing through a duct
o Exocrine Glands
 secrete products into ducts that empty onto surface of epithelium
 Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands
 Unicellular Glands – single-celled glands e.g. goblet cells
 Multicellular Glands – composed of many cells that form a distinctive
microscopic structure or macroscopic organ
o Branched vs. Unbranched
 simple gland – the duct of the gland does not branch
 compound gland – the duct of the gland branches
o Shape of Secretory Portions
 tubular glands – glands with tubular secretory parts
 acinar/alveolar glands – also called alveolar glands,
with rounded secretory portions
 tubuloacinar glands – have both tubular and more
rounded secretory parts
 Simple Glands
o Simple Tubular
  tubular secretory part is straight
 attached to a single unbranched duct
 e.g. glands in the large intestines
o Simple Branched Tubular
 tubular secretory part is branched
 attached to a single unbranched duct
 e.g. gastric glands
o Simple Coiled Tubular
 tubular secretory part is coiled
 attached to a single unbranched duct
 e.g. sweat glands
o Simple Acinar
 round secretory portion
 attached to a single unbranched duct
 e.g. penile urethra
o Simple Branched Acinar
 rounded branched secretory part
 attached to a single unbranched duct
 e.g. sebaceous gland
 Compound Glands
o Compound Tubular
 tubular secretory portion
 attached to branched duct
 e.g. cowper’s gland
o Compound Acinar
 rounded secretory portion
 attached to branched duct
 e.g. mammary glands
o Compound Tubuloacinar
 tubular and rounded secretory portion
 attached to branched duct
 e.g. acinar glands of pancreas

CONNECTIVE TISSUES

 most abundant tissue in the body

 functions:
o binds tissues together
o support and strengthen other tissues
o protects and insulate internal organs
o compartmentalize structures
o major transport
o energy reserves and immune responses
 highly vascularized, except cartilage and tendon
  supplied with nerves, except cartilage

Connective Tissue Cells

 mesenchymal cells – give rise to the cells of connective tissues

 connective tissue cells are named according to function:
o blast cell (germ) – produce the matrix
o cyte cell – maintain it
o clast cell (break) – break it down for remodeling

General Features of Connective Tissues

 Cells
o Fibroblasts
 secretes fiber and components of ground substance
o Macrophages
 engulf bacteria and cellular debris by phagocytosis
 fixed and wandering macrophages
o Plasma cells
 secretes antibodies
o Mast cells
 produce histamine
o Adipocytes
 store triglycerides (fats)
o White Blood Cells
 immune response
 neutrophils and eosinophil
 Extracellular Matrix
o determines tissue’s qualities
o Ground Substance
 between cells and fibers
 fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified
 functions to support and bind cells, store water, and allow exchange of
substance between the blood and cell
 complex combination of polysaccharides and proteins
 Glycosaminoglycans (GAG)
 Hyaluronic Acid
o viscous, slippery substance that binds cells together
o lubricates joints
o helps maintain the shape of the eyeballs
 Chondroitin Sulfate
o provides support and adhesiveness in cartilage, bone, skin, and
blood vessels
 Dermatan Sulfate
o skin, tendons, blood vessels, and heart valves
 o Keratan Sulfate
o bone, cartilage, and the cornea of the eye
 Protein
 Proteoglycans
o consist of core protein attached to GAG
 Adhesion Proteins
o linking components of ground substance
 Fibronectin
o binds collagen fibers and ground substance
o Fibers
 function to strengthen and support connective tissues
 Collagen Fibers
 give tensile strength (resist tension)
 allow tissue flexibility
 collagen – most abundant protein in the body
 Elastin Fibers
 elasticity
 consist of the protein, elastin and the glycoprotein, fibrillin
 Reticular Fibers
 reticulin
 composed of type III collagen
 form a fine meshwork to support soft tissues

CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Embryonic Connective Tissue

 found in the embryo and fetus

 Mesenchyme
o forms almost all other connective tissues
o has irregularly shaped mesenchymal cells embedded in semifluid ground substance that
contains delicate reticular fibers
 Mucous Connective Tissues
o found in the umbilical cord of fetus for support
o has widely scattered fibroblasts embedded in viscous, jellylike ground substance that
contains fine collagen fibers

Mature Connective Tissue

 present in newborn
 Connective Tissue Proper – flexible and has a viscous ground substance with abundant fibers
o Loose Connective Tissues – fibers are loosely arranged between cells
 Loose Areolar Connective Tissue
 a fine network of fibers (mostly collagen fibers with a few elastic fibers)
with spaces between the fibers.
 several cells located in the spaces
  location:
o basement membrane
o subcutaneous layer of skin
o papillary region of dermis
o lamina propria (technical term for basement membrane) of
mucous membrane
o blood vessels
o nerves
o body organs
 Loose Adipose Connective Tissue
 contains adipocytes
 cytoplasm and nucleus are pushed to periphery of cell
o White Adipose Tissue
 common in adult
o Brown Adipose Tissue (BAT)
 fetus and infant
 darker since it is rich in blood supply and mitochondria
 function:
o supports and protects organs
o cushion viscera
o reduces heat loss
 location:
o subcutaneous layer of skin
o heart
o kidneys
o yellow bone marrow
o joints
o behind eyeball
 Loose Reticular Connective Tissue
 fine network of reticular fibers irregularly arranged
 function:
o forms stroma of organs
o binds smooth muscle cells
 location:
o liver
o spleen
o lymph nodes
o red bone marrow
o reticular layer of basement membrane
o blood vessels
o muscles
o Dense Connective Tissues – fibers are thicker and more densely packed than loose
connective tissue
  Dense Regular Connective Tissue
 parallel bundles of collagen fibers and fibroblast
 location:
o tendons
o most ligaments
o aponeuroses
 Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
 consists of randomly arranged collagen fibers and a few fibroblasts
 function:
o provides tensile strength in many directions
 location:
o fasciae
o reticular layer of dermis
o fibrous pericardium of heart
o periosteum of bone
o perichondrium of cartilage
o joint capsules
o membranes capsules (kidneys, liver, testes and lymph nodes
o heart valves
 Dense Elastic Connective Tissue
 consists of branching elastic fibers and fibroblasts
 function:
o allows stretching of various organs
o strong and recoils to original shape after being stretched
 location:
o lung tissue
o walls of elastic arteries
o trachea
o bronchial tubes
o true vocal cords
o suspensory ligaments of penis
o some ligaments between vertebrae
 Supporting Connective Tissue – includes cartilage and bone
o Cartilage – contains chondrocyte and chondroitin sulfate containing collagen and elastic
fibers
 can endure more stress than loose and dense connective tissues due to its
collagen fibers
 its resilience is due to chondroitin sulfate
 it differs from other connective tissues for not having nerves and blood vessels
in its extracellular matrix
 heals poorly
 avascular because it secretes antiangiogenesis factor, a substance that prevents
blood vessel growth.
  chondrocytes, the cells of mature cartilage occur within spaces called lacunae in
the extracellular matrix.
 perichondrium surrounds the surface of most cartilage and contains blood
vessels and nerves and is the source of new cartilage
 Hyaline Cartilage
 contains resilient gel as ground substance
 appears as bluish-white shiny substance
 chondrocytes are found in lacunae surrounded by perichondrium
 weakest type of cartilage
 most abundant cartilage
 function:
o provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints, flexibility, and
support
 location:
o ends of long bones anterior ends of ribs
o nose
o parts of larynx
o trachea
o bronchi
o bronchial tubes
o embryonic and fetal skeleton
 Fibrocartilage
 contains chondrocytes scattered among visible bundles of collagen
fibers
 lacks perichondrium
 strongest type of cartilage
 location:
o pubic symphysis
o intervertebral disc
o menisci
o portions of tendons that insert into cartilage
 Elastic Cartilage
 consists of chondrocytes found in network of elastic fibers
 perichondrium present
 function:
o provides elasticity
o maintains shape of certain structures
 location:
o lid on top of larynx (epiglottis)
o external ear (auricle)
o auditory tubes
o Bone or Osseus Tissue
  contains extracellular matrix of mineral salts and collagen fibers for hardness of
bone and osteocytes located in lacunae
 functions:
 support
 protection
 storage of minerals
 houses hematopoietic cells (blood-forming tissue)
 Spongy Bone Tissue
 Trabeculae
o columns of bone which contains lamellae, osteocytes, lacunae,
and canaliculi
o spaces between trabeculae are filled with red bone marrow
 Compact Bone Tissue
 Osteon (Haversian System)
o basic unit of compact bone
 Lamillae
o concentric rings of extracellular matrix responsible for bone’s
compactness
o contains minerals such as calcium and phosphate (hardness,
compressive strength) and collagen fibers (tensile strength)
o responsible for the compact nature of compact bones
 Lacunae
o small spaces between lamellae containing osteocytes
 Canaliculi
o projection from lacunae that provides routes for nutrients to
reach osteocytes and for waste to leave them
 Central Haversian Canal
o contains blood vessels and nerves
 Fluid Connective Tissue – has a liquid as its extracellular matrix
o Blood – consist of liquid extracellular matrix called plasma and formed elements (RBC,
WBC, and platelets)
 location:
 within blood vessels
 heart chamber
 Blood Plasma
 pale yellow fluid consists mostly of water with variety of dissolved
substance
 Formed Elements
 red blood cell (erythrocytes) – transport oxygen to body cells and
remove some carbon dioxide from them
 white blood cell (leukocytes) – involved in phagocytosis, immunity and
allergic reactions
 platelets (thrombocytes) – participate in blood clotting
 o Lymph
 extracellular fluid that flows in lymphatic vessels that consists of several types of
cells
 similar to blood plasma but with less protein
 consists of lymphocytes
 Red Marrow
 -
 Yellow Marrow
 -

MUSCULAR TISSUES

 consists of elongated cells called muscle fibers or myocytes

Functions

 produces body movements

 maintain posture
 generate heat
 provides protection

CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCULAR TISSUE

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

 long, cylindrical, striated fibers with nuclei at periphery

 striations – alternating dark and light bands within the tissue
 voluntary contractions by conscious control
 vary greatly in length from few cm (short muscles) up to 30-40cm (longest muscle)
 location:
o attached to bones by tendons

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

 branched, striated fibers with usually only one centrally located nucleus (occasionally two)
 involuntary movement
 intercalated disc – unique structures found between myocardial cells
 location:
o heart wall

Smooth Muscle Tissue

 non-striated containing single, centrally located nucleus

 usually involuntary control
 function:
o motion
o peristalsis (wave-like motion of gastrointestinal organs)
 location:
 o iris of eyes
o walls of hollow internal structures such as blood vessels, airways to lungs, stomach,
intestines, gallbladder, urinary bladder, and uterus

NERVOUS TISSUE

 exhibits sensitivity to stimuli

Neurons (Nerve Cells)

 convert stimuli to nerve impulses

 three basic parts:
o cell body
o dendrites
o axon

Neuroglia (Glial Cells)

 do not generate or conduct nerve impulses

 have other important supporting functions