Histology of the epithelium tissue

Epithelium forms continuous sheets of cells that line internal surfaces and cover the
external surface of the body. It is a selective barrier that protects tissues and is often
involved in absorption or secretion. A basement membrane separates an epithelium
from the underlying connective tissue.

Epithelia are classified based on three criteria:

 Number of cell layers (single or compound)

 Shape of surface cells (squamous, cuboidal or columnar)
 Specializations (cilia, keratin or goblet cells)

Epithelial cells are highly polarized:

 Apical surface - faces the lumen or the external environment

o Microvilli, cilia, stereocilia
 Lateral surface - faces the sides of adjacent cells
o Tight junctions (zona occludens), adherens junction (zona adherens),
desmosomes (macula adherens), gap junctions
 Basal surface - attaches to the basement membrane
o Basement membrane, hemidesmosomes

Glands are formed by the down growth of an epithelium into the underlying
connective tissue

Functions of the epithelial tissues

1. To protect the tissues that lie beneath from radiation, desiccation, toxins,
invasion by pathogens, and physical trauma
2. The regulation and exchange of chemicals between the underlying tissues
and a body cavity
3. The secretion of hormones into the circulatory system, as well as the
secretion of sweat, mucus, enzymes, and other products that are delivered by
ducts
4. To provide sensation

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 5. Absorb water and digested food in the lining of digestive canal.

Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they must receive nourishment via
diffusion of substances from the underlying connective tissue, through the
basement membrane. Cell junctions are well employed in epithelial tissues.

 The three principal shapes associated with epithelial cells are—squamous,

cuboidal and columnar.

 Squamous epithelium has cells that are wider than their height (flat and scale
-like). The cells fit closely together in tissues; providing a smooth, low-friction
surface over which fluids can move easily. The shape of the nucleus usually
corresponds to the cell form and helps to identify the type of epithelium.
Squamous cells tend to have horizontally flattened, nearly oval shaped nuclei
because of the thin flattened form of the cell. Squamous epithelium is found
lining surfaces such as the skin, and alveoli in the lung, enabling simple
passive diffusion as also found in the alveolar epithelium in the lungs.
Specialized squamous epithelium also forms the lining of cavities such as in
blood vessels (as endothelium), in the pericardium (as mesothelium), and in
other body cavities. This is found as the lining of the mouth, oesophagus etc.

 Cuboidal epithelium has cells whose height and width is approximately the
same (cube shaped). Cuboidal epithelial cells have a cube-like shape and
appear square in cross-section. The cell nucleus is large, spherical and is in
the center of the cell. Cuboidal epithelium is commonly found in secretive
tissue such as the exocrine glands, or in absorptive tissue such as the
pancreas, the lining of the kidney tubules as well as in the ducts of the glands.
The germinal epithelium that covers the female ovary, and the germinal
epithelium that lines the walls of the seminferous tubules in the testes are
also of the cuboidal type. Cuboidal cells provide protection and may be active
in pumping material in or out of the lumen, or passive depending on their
location and specialisation. Simple cuboidal epithelium commonly
differentiates to form the secretory and duct portions of glands. Stratified

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 cuboidal epithelium protects areas such as the ducts of sweat glands,
mammary glands, and salivary glands.

 Columnar epithelium has cells taller than they are wide (column-shaped).
Columnar epithelial cells are elongated and column-shaped and have a height
of at least four times their width. Their nuclei are elongated and are usually
located near the base of the cells. Columnar epithelium forms the lining of the
stomach and intestines. The cells here may possess microvilli for maximising
the surface area for absorption and these microvilli may form a brush border.
Other cells may be ciliated to move mucus in the function of mucociliary
clearance. Other ciliated cells are found in the fallopian tubes, the uterus and
central canal of the spinal cord. Some columnar cells are specialized for
sensory reception such as in the nose, ears and the taste buds. Hair cells in
the inner ears have stereocilia which are similar to microvilli. Goblet cells are
modified columnar cells and are found between the columnar epithelial cells
of the duodenum. They secrete mucus, which acts as a lubricant. Single-
layered non-ciliated columnar epithelium tends to indicate an absorptive
function. Stratified columnar epithelium is rare but is found in lobar ducts in
the salivary glands, the eye, pharynx and sex organs. This consists of a layer
of cells resting on at least one other layer of epithelial cells which can be
squamous, cuboidal, or columnar.

 By layer, epithelium is classed as either simple epithelium, only one cell thick
(unilayered) or stratified epithelium having two or more cells in thickness or
multi-layered – as stratified squamous epithelium, stratified cuboidal
epithelium, and stratified columnar epithelium, and both types of layering can
be made up of any of the cell shapes. However, when taller simple columnar
epithelial cells are viewed in cross section showing several nuclei appearing
at different heights, they can be confused with stratified epithelia. This kind of
epithelium is therefore described as pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
Transitional epithelium has cells that can change from squamous to cuboidal,
depending on the amount of tension on the epithelium.

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Simple epithelium

Simple epithelium is a single layer of cells with every cell in direct contact with the
basement membrane that separates it from the underlying connective tissue. In
general, it is found where absorption and filtration occur. The thinness of the
epithelial barrier facilitates these processes.

In general, simple epithelial tissues are classified by the shape of their cells. The four
major classes of simple epithelium are: (1) simple squamous; (2) simple cuboidal; (3)
simple columnar; (4) pseudostratified.

(1) simple squamous; Squamous epithelial cells appear scale-like or flattened

or rounded e.g. walls of capillaries, linings of the pericardial, pleural, and
peritoneal cavities, as well as the linings of the alveoli of the lungs.
(2) simple cuboidal: these cells may have secretory, absorptive, or excretory
functions. examples include small collecting ducts of kidney, pancreas, and
salivary gland.
(3) simple columnar; cells can be secretory, absorptive, or excretory; Simple
columnar epithelium can be ciliated or non-ciliated; ciliated columnar is found
in the female reproductive tract and uterus. Non-ciliated epithelium can also
possess microvilli. Some tissues contain goblet cells and are referred to as
simple glandular columnar epithelium. These secrete mucus and are found in
stomach, colon and rectum.
(4) pseudostratified columnar epithelium; can be ciliated or non-ciliated. The
ciliated type is also called respiratory epithelium as it is almost exclusively
confined to the larger respiratory airways of the nasal cavity, trachea and
bronchi. These are simple columnar epithelial cells whose nuclei appear at
different heights, giving the misleading (hence "pseudo") impression that the
epithelium is stratified when the cells are viewed in cross section. Ciliated
pseudostratified epithelial cells have cilia. Cilia are capable of energy-
dependent pulsatile beating in a certain direction through interaction of
cytoskeletal microtubules and connecting structural proteins and enzymes. In
the respiratory tract, the wafting effect produced causes mucus secreted
locally by the goblet cells (to lubricate and to trap pathogens and particles) to

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 flow in that direction (typically out of the body). Ciliated epithelium is found in
the airways (nose, bronchi), but is also found in the uterus and Fallopian tubes,
where the cilia propel the ovum to the uterus.

Stratified epithelium

Stratified epithelium differs from simple epithelium in that it is multilayered. It is

therefore found where body linings have to withstand mechanical or chemical insult
such that layers can be abraded and lost without exposing subepithelial layers. Cells
flatten as the layers become more apical, though in their most basal layers the cells
can be squamous, cuboidal or columnar. Stratified epithelia (of columnar, cuboidal
or squamous type) can have the following specializations:

Specialization Description
In this particular case, the most apical layers (exterior) of cells are
dead and lose their nucleus and cytoplasm, instead contain a tough,
resistant protein called keratin. This specialization makes the
Keratinized
epithelium waterproof, so is found in the mammalian skin. The lining
of the esophagus is an example of a non-keratinized or "moist"
stratified epithelium.
In this case, the most apical layers of cells are filled with keratin, but
they still retain their nuclei. These nuclei are pyknotic, meaning that
Parakeratinized
they are highly condensed. Parakeratinized epithelium is sometimes
found in the oral mucosa and in the upper regions of the esophagus.
Transitional epithelia are found in tissues that stretch and it can
appear to be stratified cuboidal when the tissue is relaxed, or
Transitional stratified squamous when the organ is distended and the tissue
stretches. It is sometimes called urothelium since it is almost
exclusively found in the bladder, ureters and urethra.

Basement membrane

Epithelial tissue rests on a basement membrane, which acts as scaffolding on which

epithelium can grow and regenerate after injuries. Epithelial tissue has a nerve
supply, but no blood supply and must be nourished by substances diffusing from the

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blood vessels in the underlying tissue. The basement membrane acts as a
selectively permeable membrane that determines which substances will be able to
enter the epithelium.

Cell junctions

Cell junctions are especially abundant in epithelial tissues. They consist of protein
complexes and provide contact between neighbouring cells, between a cell and the
extracellular matrix, or they build up the paracellular barrier of epithelia and control
the paracellular transport.

Cell junctions are the contact points between plasma membrane and tissue cells.
There are mainly 5 different types of cell junctions: tight junctions, adherens
junctions, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, and gap junctions. Tight junctions are a
pair of trans-membrane protein fused on outer plasma membrane. Adherens
junctions are a plaque (protein layer on the inside plasma membrane) which
attaches both cells' microfilaments. Desmosomes attach to the microfilaments of
cytoskeleton made up of keratin protein. Hemidesmosomes resemble desmosomes
on a section. They are made up of the integrin (a transmembrane protein) instead of
cadherin. They attach the epithelial cell to the basement membrane. Gap junctions
connect the cytoplasm of two cells and are made up of proteins called connexins
(six of which come together to make a connexion).

Clinical correlates

A malignant tumour arising from the epithelium is called a carcinoma. If it arises

from a squamous epithelium it is a squamous cell carcinoma.

Glandular epithelium

Glands originate from epithelial cells that leave the surface where they
developed and penetrate into the underlying connective tissue,
manufacturing a basal lamina that envelop them. The secretory units,
along with their ducts, are the parenchyma of the gland, whereas the
stroma of the gland represents the elements of the connective tissue
that invade and support the parenchyma. Glandular epithelia manufacture
their product intracellularly by synthesis of macromolecules that are
usually packaged and stored in vesicles called secretory granules.

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Glands are classified into two major groups on the basis of the method
of distribution of their secretory products:

1. Exocrine glands secrete their products via ducts onto the external or
internal epithelial surface from which they originated.

2. Endocrine glands are ductless, having lost their connections to the

originating epithelium, and thus secrete their products into the blood or
lymphatic vessels for distribution.

Depending on the distance cytokine must travel to reach its target cell,
its effect may be one of the following:

Note: Cytokine perform the function of cell-to-cell communication. Cytokines

are released by signalling cells and act on target cells, which possess
receptors for the specific signalling molecule.

• Autocrine. The signalling cell is its own target; thus, the cell
stimulates itself.

• Paracrine. The target cell is located in the vicinity of the signalling

cell; thus, the cytokine does not have to enter the vascular system for
distribution to its target.

• Endocrine. The target cell and signalling cell are far from each other;
thus, the cytokine has to be transported either by the blood or by the
lymph vascular system.

Exocrine glands are classified according to the

1. Nature of their secretion

2. Mode of secretion, and

3. The number of cells (unicellular or multicellular).

Based on the nature of their secretion, Many exocrine glands in the digestive,
respiratory, and urogenital systems secrete substances that are described
as mucous, serous, or mixed (both) types.

 Mucous glands secrete mucinogens, large glycosylated proteins that,

upon hydration, swell to become a thick, viscous, gel-like protective
lubricant known as mucin, a major component of mucus. Examples
of mucous glands include goblet cells and the minor salivary
glands of the hard and soft palates.

 Serous glands, such as the pancreas, secrete an enzyme-rich watery

fluid.

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  Mixed glands contain acini (secretory units) that produce mucous
secretions as well as acini that produce serous secretions.

Based on the mode of secretion, exocrine glands exhibit three different

mechanisms for releasing their secretory products: (1) merocrine, (2)
apocrine, and (3) holocrine

The release of the secretory product of merocrine glands (e.g., parotid

gland) occurs via exocytosis; as a result, neither cell membrane nor
cytoplasm becomes a part of the secretion. They release their secretion
without damaging the cell membrane of the secretory cells. Proteinous material
such as serous and mucous fluid are usually the main content of the secretion.
Example: salivary glands, sweet glands of the dermis, lacrimal gland, uterine gland,
prostate gland.

Apocrine mode of secretion, historically, it was believed that in apocrine

glands (e.g., lactating mammary gland), a small portion of the apical
cytoplasm is released along with the secretory product. Lipid materials are
usually the main content of the secretion, example mammary glands, sweat glands
of the areolar and axilla, cerumen glands of the ear.

In holocrine glands (e.g., sebaceous gland), as a secretory cell matures, it

dies and becomes the secretory product. Oily materials are usually the main
content of the secretion example, gland of zeis [modified sebaceous gland of the
eyelid], meibomian [tarsal] gland, exocrine testis, exocrine ovary.

Based on the number of cells

1. Unicellular exocrine glands are the simplest form of exocrine

gland. The primary example is the goblet cell, which are
dispersed individually in the epithelia lining the digestive tract
and portions of the respiratory tract. The secretions released
by goblet cells protect the linings of these tracts. Their thin
basal region sits on the basal lamina, whereas their expanded
apical portion, the theca, faces the lumen of the digestive
tube or respiratory tract. The theca is filled with membrane-
bound secretory droplets filled with mucinogen, which displace
the cytoplasm to the cell’s periphery and the nucleus toward
its base. The process of mucinogen release is regulated and
stimulated by chemical irritation and parasympathetic
innervation, resulting in exocytosis of the entire secretory
contents of the cell, thus lubricating and protecting the
epithelial sheet.

2. Multicellular exocrine glands are classified as simple if their

ducts do not branch and compound if their ducts do branch.

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 They are further categorized according to the morphology of
their secretory units as tubular, acinar (sometimes also
referred to as alveolar, resembling a grape), or tubuloacinar.
Larger multicellular glands are surrounded by a collagenous
connective tissue capsule, which sends septa—strands of
connective tissue—into the gland, subdividing it into smaller
compartments known as lobes and lobules. Vascular elements,
nerves, and ducts use the connective tissue septa to enter
and exit the gland. In addition, the connective tissue elements
provide structural support for the gland. Acini of many
multicellular exocrine glands, such as sweat glands and major
salivary glands, possess myoepithelial cells that share the
basal lamina of the acinar cells. Although myoepithelial cells
are of epithelial origin, they have some characteristics of
smooth muscle cells, particularly contractility. These cells
exhibit small nuclei and sparse fibrillar cytoplasm radiating
out from the cell body, wrapping around the acini and some
of the small ducts. Their contractions assist in expressing
secretions from the acini and from some small ducts.

All exocrine glands have basically the same structural organisation consisting of
three components—parenchyma, stroma and duct system.

Parenchyma: The secretory cells of a gland constitute its parenchyma.

Stroma: The connective tissue in which the parenchyma lies is called the stroma.
The glandular tissue is often divisible into lobules separated by connective tissue
septa. Aggregations of lobules may form distinct lobes. The connective tissue
covering the entire gland forms a capsule for it. Blood vessels and nerves pass along
connective tissue septa to reach the secretory elements. Their activity is under
nervous or hormonal control.

Duct system: The ducts convey the secretory product of the gland. When a gland is
divided into lobes the ducts draining it may be intralobular (lying within a lobule),
interlobular (lying in the intervals between lobules), or interlobar (lying between
adjacent lobes), in increasing order of size.

Endocrine glands are usually arranged in cords or in clumps that are intimately
related to a rich network of blood capillaries or of sinusoids. In some cases (for
example the thyroid gland) the cells may form rounded follicles. Endocrine cells and
their blood vessels are supported by delicate connective tissue, and are usually
surrounded by a capsule.

Clinical Correlation

 Neoplasms can arise from the epithelium lining a gland. A benign growth

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arising in a gland is an adenoma; and a malignant growth is an
adenocarcinoma.

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