03/16/24 histology , epithelial cells 1

Welcome to new semester .

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 Epithelial tissue

Dr Ayaanle Ahmed, MBBS , MD

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The major levels of organization in the body,
from the simplest to the most complex are:
atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues,
organs, organ systems, organism

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 Introduction
• Histology: histo-tissue logy-study..
Is the study of cells and extracellular matrix
of tissues.

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• Human body is composed four basic types of
tissues:

1.Epithelial
2.Connective
3.Muscular
4.Nervous
NB: these tissues where formed by cells and
molecules generically called extracellular
matrix.
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 Epithelial Tissues
Structure
•Epithelial tissue covers the whole surface
of the body. It is made up of cells closely
packed and ranged in one or more layers.
•This tissue is specialized to form the
covering or lining of all internal and
external body surfaces.
• Epithelial tissue that occurs on surfaces
on the interior of the body is known as
endothelium
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• Epithelial cells are packed tightly together,
with almost no intercellular spaces and only
a small amount of intercellular substance.
• Epithelial tissue, regardless of the type, is
usually separated from the underlying tissue
by a thin sheet of connective tissue; basement
membrane.

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The basement membrane provides
structural support for the epithelium and also
binds it to neighbouring structures

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 Functions of Epithelial Tissue
1.Protection

Epithelial cells from the skin protect underlying tissue

from mechanical injury, harmful chemicals, invading
bacteria and from excessive loss of water.
2.Sensation

Sensory stimuli penetrate specialized epithelial cells.

Specialized epithelial tissue containing sensory nerve
endings is found in the skin, eyes, ears, nose and on the
tongue.

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3.Secretion

In glands, epithelial tissue is specialized to

secrete specific chemical substances such as
enzymes, hormones and lubricating fluids.
4.Absorption

Certain epithelial cells lining the small intestine

absorb nutrients from the digestion of food.

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5.Excretion
Epithelial tissues in the kidney excrete waste
products from the body and reabsorb needed
materials from the urine. Sweat is also excreted
from the body by epithelial cells in the sweat
glands.
6.Diffusion
Simple epithelium promotes the diffusion of gases,
liquids and nutrients. Because they form such a
thin lining, they are ideal for the diffusion of gases
(e.g. walls of capillaries and lungs).
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7.Cleaning
Ciliated epithelium assists in removing dust
particles and foreign bodies which have entered
the air passages.
8.Reduces Friction
The smooth, tightly-interlocking, epithelial cells
that line the entire circulatory system reduce
friction between the blood and the walls of the
blood vessels.

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 Types of Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelial tissue can be divided into two
groups depending on the number of layers of
which it is composes.
• Epithelial tissue which is only one cell thick
is known as simple epithelium.
• If it is two or more cells thick such as the
skin, it is known as stratified epithelium.

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 Simple epithelium

• Simple epithelium can be subdivided

according to the shape and function of its
cells
1. Squamous epithelium
Squamous cells have the appearance of thin,
flat plates.
The shape of the nucleus usually corresponds
to the cell form and help to identify the type
of epithelium.
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• Squamous cells, for example, tend to have
horizontal flattened, elliptical nuclei
because of the thin flattened form of the
cell.
• They form the lining of cavities such as the
mouth, blood vessels, heart and lungs and
make up the outer layers of the skin

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 Simple squamous epithelium

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 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium.
• As their name implies, cuboidal cells are
roughly square or cuboidal in shape.
• Each cell has a spherical nucleus in the center.
Cuboidal epithelium is found in glands and in
the lining of the kidney tubules as well as in
the ducts of the glands.
• They also constitute the germinal epithelium
which produces the egg cells in the female
ovary and the sperm cells in the male testes.
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 Simple cuboidal epithelium

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 Simple Columnar Epithelium
• Columnar epithelial cells occur in one or more
layers. The cells are elongated and column-
shaped.
• The nuclei are elongated and are usually
located near the base of the cells.
• Columnar epithelium forms the lining of the
stomach and intestines.

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• Some columnar cells are specialized for
sensory reception such as in the nose, ears
and the taste buds of the tongue.
• Goblet cells (unicellular glands) are found
between the columnar epithelial cells of
the duodenum. They secrete mucus or
slime, a lubricating substance which keeps
the surface smooth.

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 Simple columnar epithelium

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 Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

• These are simple columnar epithelial cells,

but in addition, they posses fine hair-like
outgrowths, cilia on their free surfaces.
These cilia are capable of rapid, rhythmic,
wavelike beatings in a certain direction.

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• This movement of the cilia in a certain
direction causes the mucus, which is secreted
by the goblet cells, to move (flow or stream)
in that direction.
• Ciliated epithelium is usually found in the
air passages like the nose.
• It is also found in the uterus and Fallopian
tubes of females. The movement of the cilia
propel the ovum to the uterus.

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 Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

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 Naming of epithelia:
squamous cuboidal columnar

simple simple simple simple pseudostratifie

columnar d
squamous cuboidal
columnar
ciliated; simple
columnar
ciliated
epithelium
stratified squamous stratified stratified transitional
* cuboidal* columnar *

•based on the shape of the cells in the superficial (surface) layer

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all cells rest on basement membrane; all cells do not reach
basement membrane.
nuclei placed at different level – appear to be stratified but
NOT TRULY.
epithelium has both columnar ciliated and non ciliated
basal cells*
* stem cells to maintain the population of the cells in the
epithelium.

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 cilia

nuclei

basement membrane

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 Lining of bronchus – pseudo stratified columnar ciliated epithelium –
for defense

cilia
columnar cell with
cilia
basal cell
basement membrane

- pseudostratified columnar epithelium is almost exclusive for respiratory

system

cilia act as a biological escalator to remove dust and mucous

from the air way

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 Stratified epithelium

multilayered suitable for protection rather than

for absorption and secretion
-epithelia are named based on the shape of
cells in the superficial layer

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 Stratified squamous epithelium
basal layer has columnar / cuboidal cells resting on the
basement membrane
intermediate layer ( many layers) has polyhedral cells with
spherical nucleus in the center of the cells
superficial layer has squamous cells
superficial layer of
squamous cells

Basement membrane
Basal layer

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 Types of stratified squamous epithelium:
non keratinized: does not have keratin (intermediate
filamentous protein) e.g. lining epithelium of esophagus,
anal canal, vagina and large ducts of salivary glands
Uterine cervix
x 100 Apical layer
x 400

lymphocytes

Basal layer

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keratinized
-found in places that are subjected to constant physical assault;
e.g. epidermis of skin

-cells contain keratin intermediate filament protein

-- keratinization can be induced in epithelial tissue by exposing it
to physical abrasion and desiccation

keratin layer

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 Stratified cuboidal epithelium

-more than one layer of cells - usually two layers

-basal layer columnar / cuboidal resting on the basement
membrane
-superficial layer has cuboidal cells
-e.03/16/24
g sweat duct, ducts in mammary gland , large ducts in salivary
38
histology , epithelial cells
glands - moderately absorptive in function
 Stratified columnar epithelium

basal layer of cuboidal or columnar cell

resting on the basement membrane
-superficial layer has columnar cells
-rare epithelium found in the terminal part of
male urethra , conjunctiva
and in ducts of some serous secretory gland.

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 exclusive of urinary system

Transitional
epithelium

-stratified epithelium
- basal layer of columnar cells
- dome shaped cells
-intermediate layer of cuboidal cells
-superficial layer has ‘ dome’ shaped or umbrella cells that change
shape depending on the functional status of the organ; flattened when
the organ is distended; becomes dome shaped when the organ
contracts;
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 Epithelial Glands
Type of gland Classification Duct system Secretory unit

Unicellular Exocrine Simple Tubular

Tubulo
Multicellular Endocrine Compound Acinar
Acinar

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 Epithelial Glands

Exocrine (Duct Present) Endocrine

(Ducts absent)

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 Modes of Secretion

Holocrine Apocrine Merocrine

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• Holocrine gland: is a gland the secretion
of which consists of disintegrated cells of
the gland itself, e.g., a sebaceous gland.
• Apocrine gland: Denoting a mechanism of
glandular secretion in which the apical
portion of secretory cells is shed and
incorporated into the secretion.
• Merocrine gland: is a gland that releases
only an acellular secretory product.

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 Types of secretions

Serous Mucous

• Serous: Relating to, containing, or producing serum or

a substance having a watery consistency.
• Mucous: Relating to mucus which is integrated
secretion.

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 Uni cellular: Goblet
cells

Epithelial Glands

Multi Cellular

Goblet cells: a column-shaped cell found in the

respiratory and intestinal tracts, which secretes the
main component of mucus.

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 NB
morphology of the epithelium correlates functions
o simple – for absorption and / or secretion
simple squamous – for high rate of
transcytosis (transepithelial transport) as in the
endothelium of blood vessel
o columnar epithelium – active secretion and
absorption
o stratified epithelium for protection &
impermeability
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 Basement membrane
0.05 micron thick
-non cellular sheet specialized from extracellular
matrix
-anchor the base of the epithelial cells to the
-underlying
because ofsupport
its high tissue
content of sugar, it is well
demonstrated with PAS technique (periodic acid
Schiff) as magenta colored membrane.

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 Structure of basement
membrane:
three layers

1.lamina Lucida or lamina rarae – abuts the

epithelium; electron lucent.
2.lamina densa – electron dense; thickest component;
often referred to as basal lamina.
3.reticular lamina ( lamina fibroreticularis)- formed by
collagen type III, merges with fibrous protein of the
matrix.

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composition of basal lamina:
five components
1. collagen type IV – gives structural stability
2. proteoglycans (glycosaminoglycan GAG +
proteins - heparin sulphate) – forms the bulk of the
basal lamina; highly anionic in character (- ve
charge) ; attract cations and water (extensively
hydrated); regulate movement of cations.

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 3. Laminin: binding sites for integrins, type
IV collagen, and heparan sulfate. It binds
lamina lucida to lamina densa.
4. Entactin
5. fibronectin: type of glycoproteins; highly
adhesive; act as glue to bind various
components of the basal lamina.
- entactin and fibronectin connect the
basal plasma membrane of cells to the basal
lamina.

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‘ gluing’ function of basal lamina components
actin cytoskeleton (cell) integrin (transmembrane
protein).

to type IV collagen Laminin, entactin and

fibronectin.

anchoring fibrils formed by collagen VII to the

underlying connective tissue.

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all components of the basal lamina are secreted
by the epithelial cells themselves.
fibronectin is secreted by fibroblasts
basal lamina is also secreted by muscle cells,
adipose cells and Schwann cells – external
lamina.

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Functions of basement membrane:
1. provide structural attachment to the
epithelial cells
2. molecular sieve:
-compartmentalize epithelium from the
surrounding connective tissue to regulate flow
of substances ( permeability function);
- the pore size depends on the charge of
GAG.
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3. regulates cell organization & differentiation:
forms impenetrable barrier for the downward
growth of epithelial cells thus regulating the
epithelial growth.
* in epithelial malignancy, the basement
membrane is breached allowing passage of
tumor cells across it – a diagnostic value to
assess the degree of malignancy.

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 Cell surface modifications:
- epithelial cells have distinct polarity: apical, lateral,
basal surfaces specialized for distinct function

Apical modifications:
1. microvilli
2. cilia
3. stereocilia: A nonmotile long
microvillus
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 Microvilli
o fine finger like projections of apical cell
membrane along with cytoplasm, to increase
surface area.
o appears as striated border or brush border
o vary in number and length depending on the
function of the cells; many & long in
absorptive cells of small intestine and kidney
tubules.

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Structure of microvilli

o formed by actin filaments that are cross linked to

each other and to the surrounding plasma
membrane by proteins ;
o actin filaments are attached to cytoplasmic
microfilaments that form terminal web just
beneath the apical surface of the cell
o covered by glycocalyx

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 Stereocilia- long microvilli
ounusual surface modifications, limited to the
epithelium of epididymis and the hair cells of
vestibulo -auditory apparatus
serve as receptor device rather than
absorptive structure.

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 Cilia & Flagella
o long, motile cytoplasmic structure of 0.25
microns in diameter for transport.
o have an internal structure to provide support as
well as motile force.
o vary in length and number indicative of
epithelial function ( more in respiratory
epithelium, fewer in oviduct).
o some cells have a single cilium – more of
sensory role as in the hair cells of the organ of
corti, crista ampullaris
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o Ciliary action: serve as mechanical
escalators
undergo regular, synchronous movement
exhibit a rapid forward movement (effective
stroke) followed by a slower return movement
( the recovery stroke)
o forward movement is powered by ATP
( mitochondrial concentration will be evident
at the apical region of ciliated cells)
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 Lateral and basal folding:
o specialized folds in the lateral / basal
surface of cells in epithelia to increase
the surface area for transportation.
o concerned with rapid/active
transportation of ions and hence water.
e.g. in the intestinal epithelial cells, in
lining of kidney tubules.
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in these situations apical surfaces of the cells
transport ions (Na+) and water passively down
concentration gradient; the ions leave the basal
(kidney)or the lateral (intestine) surface of the
cells against concentration gradient powered by
Na+ / K+ ATPase.
*mitochondrial concentration is high in these
regions.

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 Junctional Complexes

oepithelial cells are cohesive & adherent ; held

tightly.
oneed strong mechanical force to separate them

Functions :
1.to keep cells together
2.to provide means of communication for a
coordinated function of the epithelial cells
3. form tight seals to prevent paracellular flow of
substances.
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 adhesion is provided by
1. binding action of glycoprotein
(integral membrane proteins)
2. intercellular proteoglycans
3. intercellular junctions provided by
specialized parts of lateral cell membrane
– junctional complexes.

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Types of junctional complexes:
I. Zonula occludens – tight junction
II. Zonula adherens
III. Macula adherens- desmosomes
IV. Gap junction

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Functional classification:

1.impermeable junction: zonula

occludens
2.adhering junction: zonula adherens,
macula adherens (desmosomes) and
hemidesmosomes
3.communicating junction : gap junction
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 Zonula Occludens

-location : close to the luminal aspect

of the cell
-form: like a band encircling the cell

- structure:
outer leaflet of adjacent cell
membrane are stitched by sealing
strands formed by membrane protein
of opposing plasma membrane

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-fusion site may be one or more depending on
the function of the epithelium;
e.g. in renal tubule epithelium it is one
or few; in urinary epithelium (in dome cells )
it is numerous.

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 Macula adherens – Desmosome (bond +
soma)
-Location : along the lateral surface of the cell
-- distributed in patches below zonula adherens
-Purpose : to provide adhesion between cells
-Structure : along the cytoplasmic aspect of the
participating cells presents attachment plaque formed by
12 different kinds of proteins;
- plaque gives attachment to keratin intermediate filaments
which make hairpin bends back to cytoplasm to continue
with the cytoskeleton
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-have intercellular space (> 30nm) wider than normal
space (20nm) containing fibrillar material derived
form both the cell membrane that form
transmembrane linker between the cells
- Occurrence: cornea, skin, vagina, esophagus

-* only junction present in the epidermis

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 Hemidesmosomes

Location: between the epithelial cell and the basal

lamina
Purpose: to prevent separation of the epithelial cell
from the basal lamina
Structure: half desmosome in structure
- cytoplasmic surface of the basal part of the cell
contain plaque formed by integrin (transmembrane
protein) with intermediate keratin filaments attached to
it
- the extracellular linker protein formed by
glycoproteins
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and proteoglycans attach integrin to
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 Gap Junction
-Occurrence : anywhere along the lateral surface of the cell
- found nearly in all mammalian cells
* skeletal muscle is an exception
Structure : cells are apposed to each other with 2 nm gap
between them
- characterized by small channels called connexons that
penetrate adjacent cell membrane & contain a pore size of 1.5 nm
- connexons are formed by gap proteins called connexins with
aqueous pore for passage for water and water soluble molecules

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 Functions: permit passage
of molecules with
molecular mass <1500 Da
(signaling molecules & ions
-#,Ca
cAMP)
ions are between
++
important forcells
the integrity of
the junction
-a rise in intracellular calcium ions results in
closure of the pores in the gap junctions
causing cell death
-* apoptotic cells are prevented from
communicating normal cells by intracellular
rise in calcium ions thereby shutting the pores
for noxious contents of apoptotic cells

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