Epithelium

Epithelium (/ˌɛpɪˈθiːliəm/)[1] is one

of the four basic types of animal
tissue, along with connective tis‐
sue, muscle tissue and nervous
tissue. Epithelial tissues line the
outer surfaces of organs and
blood vessels throughout the
body, as well as the inner sur‐
faces of cavities in many internal
organs. An example is the epider‐
mis, the outermost layer of the
skin.

Epithelium

Types of epithelium

Pronunciation epi- + thele + -ium

Identifiers

MeSH D004848

TH H2.00.02.0.00002

FMA 9639

Anatomical terms of microanatomy

There are three principal shapes

of epithelial cell: squamous,
columnar, and cuboidal. These
can be arranged in a single layer
of cells as simple epithelium, ei‐
ther squamous, columnar,
cuboidal, pseudo-stratified
columnar or in layers of two or
more cells deep as stratified (lay‐
ered), either squamous, columnar
or cuboidal. All glands are made
up of epithelial cells. Functions of
epithelial cells include secretion,
selective absorption, protection,
transcellular transport, and sens‐
ing.

Epithelial layers contain no blood

vessels, so they must receive
nourishment via diffusion of sub‐
stances from the underlying con‐
nective tissue, through the base‐
ment membrane.[2][3] Cell junc‐
tions are well-employed in epithe‐
lial tissues.

Classification
In general, epithelial tissues are
classified by the number of their
layers and by the shape and func‐
tion of the cells.[2][4][5]

The three principal shapes asso‐

ciated with epithelial cells are—
squamous, cuboidal and colum‐
nar.

Squamous epithelium has

cells that are wider than their
height (flat and scale-like).
Cuboidal epithelium has cells
whose height and width are ap‐
proximately the same (cube
 shaped).
Columnar epithelium has cells
taller than they are wide
(column-shaped).

By layer, epithelium is classed as

either simple epithelium, only one
cell thick (unilayered) or stratified
epithelium as stratified squa‐
mous epithelium, stratified
cuboidal epithelium, and strati‐
fied columnar epithelium that are
two or more cells thick (multi-
layered),[6][7] and both types of
layering can be made up of any
of the cell shapes.[4] However,
when taller simple columnar ep‐
ithelial cells are viewed in cross
section showing several nuclei
appearing at different heights,
they can be confused with strati‐
fied epithelia. This kind of epithe‐
lium is therefore described as
pseudostratified columnar ep‐
ithelium.[8]

Transitional epithelium has cells

that can change from squamous
to cuboidal, depending on the
amount of tension on the epithe‐
lium.[9]

Simple epithelium
Simple epithelium is a single
layer of cells with every cell in di‐
rect contact with the basement
membrane that separates it from
the underlying connective tissue.
In general, it is found where ab‐
sorption and filtration occur. The
thinness of the epithelial barrier
facilitates these processes.[4]

In general, simple epithelial tis‐

sues are classified by the shape
of their cells. The four major
classes of simple epithelium are:
(1) simple squamous; (2) simple
cuboidal; (3) simple columnar; (4)
pseudostratified.[4]
(1) simple squamous; which is
found lining areas where pas‐
sive diffusion of gases occur.
e.g. skin, walls of capillaries,
linings of the pericardial, pleu‐
ral, and peritoneal cavities, as
well as the linings of the alveoli
of the lungs.
(2) simple cuboidal: these cells
may have secretory, absorptive,
or excretory functions. exam‐
ples include small collecting
ducts of kidney, pancreas, and
salivary gland.
(3) simple columnar; cells can
be secretory, absorptive, or ex‐
cretory; Simple columnar ep‐
ithelium can be ciliated or non-
ciliated; ciliated columnar is
found in the female reproduc‐
tive tract and uterus. Non-
ciliated epithelium can also
possess microvilli. Some cells
contain goblet cells and are re‐
ferred to as simple glandular
columnar epithelium. these se‐
crete mucus and are found in
stomach, colon and rectum.
(4) pseudostratified columnar
epithelium; can be ciliated or
non-ciliated. The ciliated type
is also called respiratory ep‐
ithelium as it is almost exclu‐
sively confined to the larger
 respiratory airways of the nasal
cavity, trachea and bronchi.

Stratified epithelium

Stratified epithelium differs from

simple epithelium in that it is
multilayered. It is therefore found
where body linings have to with‐
stand mechanical or chemical in‐
sult such that layers can be
abraded and lost without expos‐
ing subepithelial layers. Cells flat‐
ten as the layers become more
apical, though in their most basal
layers the cells can be squa‐
mous, cuboidal or columnar.[10]
Stratified epithelia (of columnar,
cuboidal or squamous type) can
have the following specializa‐
tions:[10]

Spe‐
cializa‐ Description
tion

In this particular case, the most apical layers (exterior) of cells

are dead and lose their nucleus and cytoplasm, instead contain a
Kera‐ tough, resistant protein called keratin. This specialization makes
tinized the epithelium waterproof, so is found in the mammalian skin.
The lining of the esophagus is an example of a non-keratinized
or "moist" stratified epithelium.[10]

In this case, the most apical layers of cells are filled with keratin,
Parak‐ but they still retain their nuclei. These nuclei are pyknotic, mean‐
era‐ ing that they are highly condensed. Parakeratinized epithelium is
tinized sometimes found in the oral mucosa and in the upper regions of
the esophagus.[11]

Transitional epithelia are found in tissues that stretch and it can

appear to be stratified cuboidal when the tissue is relaxed, or
Transi‐
stratified squamous when the organ is distended and the tissue
tional
stretches. It is sometimes called urothelium since it is almost ex‐
clusively found in the bladder, ureters and urethra.[10]

Cell types
The basic cell types are squa‐
mous, cuboidal, and columnar
classed by their shape.
 Type Description

Squamous cells have the appearance of thin, flat plates that

can look polygonal when viewed from above.[12] Their name
comes from squāma, Latin for scale – as on fish or snake skin.
The cells fit closely together in tissues; providing a smooth, low-
friction surface over which fluids can move easily. The shape of
the nucleus usually corresponds to the cell form and helps to
identify the type of epithelium. Squamous cells tend to have
Squa‐
horizontally flattened, nearly oval shaped nuclei because of the
mous
thin flattened form of the cell. Squamous epithelium is found
lining surfaces such as the skin, and alveoli in the lung, enabling
simple passive diffusion as also found in the alveolar epithe‐
lium in the lungs. Specialized squamous epithelium also forms
the lining of cavities such as in blood vessels, as endothelium
and in the pericardium, as mesothelium and in other body cavi‐
ties.

Cuboidal epithelial cells have a cube-like shape and appear

square in cross-section. The cell nucleus is large, spherical and
is in the centre of the cell. Cuboidal epithelium is commonly
found in secretive tissue such as the exocrine glands, or in ab‐
sorptive tissue such as the pancreas, the lining of the kidney
tubules as well as in the ducts of the glands. The germinal ep‐
ithelium that covers the female ovary, and the germinal epithe‐
Cuboidal lium that lines the walls of the seminferous tubules in the testes
are also of the cuboidal type. Cuboidal cells provide protection
and may be active in pumping material in or out of the lumen, or
passive depending on their location and specialisation. Simple
cuboidal epithelium commonly differentiates to form the secre‐
tory and duct portions of glands.[13] Stratified cuboidal epithe‐
lium protects areas such as the ducts of sweat glands,[14] mam‐
mary glands, and salivary glands.

Columnar epithelial cells are elongated and column-shaped and

have a height of at least four times their width. Their nuclei are
Colum‐ elongated and are usually located near the base of the cells.
nar Columnar epithelium forms the lining of the stomach and in‐
testines. The cells here may possess microvilli for maximising
the surface area for absorption and these microvilli may form a
 brush border. Other cells may be ciliated to move mucus in the
function of mucociliary clearance. Other ciliated cells are found
in the fallopian tubes, the uterus and central canal of the spinal
cord. Some columnar cells are specialized for sensory reception
such as in the nose, ears and the taste buds. Hair cells in the in‐
ner ears have stereocilia which are similar to microvilli. Goblet
cells are modified columnar cells and are found between the
columnar epithelial cells of the duodenum. They secrete mucus,
which acts as a lubricant. Single-layered non-ciliated columnar
epithelium tends to indicate an absorptive function. Stratified
columnar epithelium is rare but is found in lobar ducts in the
salivary glands, the eye, pharynx and sex organs. This consists
of a layer of cells resting on at least one other layer of epithelial
cells which can be squamous, cuboidal, or columnar.

These are simple columnar epithelial cells whose nuclei appear

at different heights, giving the misleading (hence "pseudo") im‐
pression that the epithelium is stratified when the cells are
viewed in cross section. Ciliated pseudostratified epithelial cells
have cilia. Cilia are capable of energy dependent pulsatile beat‐
Pseu‐ ing in a certain direction through interaction of cytoskeletal mi‐
dostrati‐ crotubules and connecting structural proteins and enzymes. In
fied the respiratory tract the wafting effect produced causes mucus
secreted locally by the goblet cells (to lubricate and to trap
pathogens and particles) to flow in that direction (typically out
of the body). Ciliated epithelium is found in the airways (nose,
bronchi), but is also found in the uterus and Fallopian tubes,
where the cilia propel the ovum to the uterus.

Structure
Cells of epithelial tissue are
tightly packed and form a contin‐
uous sheet. They have almost no
intercellular spaces. All epithelia
is usually separated from under‐
lying tissues by an extracellular
fibrous basement membrane.
The lining of the mouth, lung
alveoli and kidney tubules all are
made of epithelial tissue. The lin‐
ing of the blood and lymphatic
vessels are of a specialised form
of epithelium called endothelium.

Location

Epithelium lines both the outside

(skin) and the inside cavities and
lumina of bodies. The outermost
layer of human skin is composed
of dead stratified squamous, ker‐
atinized epithelial cells.[15]

Tissues that line the inside of the

mouth, the oesophagus, the
vagina, and part of the rectum
are composed of nonkeratinized
stratified squamous epithelium.
Other surfaces that separate
body cavities from the outside
environment are lined by simple
squamous, columnar, or pseu‐
dostratified epithelial cells. Other
epithelial cells line the insides of
the lungs, the gastrointestinal
tract, the reproductive and urinary
tracts, and make up the exocrine
and endocrine glands. The outer
surface of the cornea is covered
with fast-growing, easily regener‐
ated epithelial cells. A spe‐
cialised form of epithelium – en‐
dothelium forms the inner lining
of blood vessels and the heart,
and is known as vascular en‐
dothelium, and lining lymphatic
vessels as lymphatic endothe‐
lium. Another type, mesothelium,
forms the walls of the peri‐
cardium, pleurae, and peri‐
toneum.

In arthropods, the integument, or

external "skin", consists of a sin‐
gle layer of epithelial ectoderm
from which arises the cuticle,[16]
an outer covering of chitin the
rigidity of which varies as per its
chemical composition.

Basement membrane

Epithelial tissue rests on a base‐

ment membrane, which acts as a
scaffolding on which epithelium
can grow and regenerate after in‐
juries.[17] Epithelial tissue has a
nerve supply, but no blood supply
and must be nourished by sub‐
stances diffusing from the blood
vessels in the underlying tissue.
The basement membrane acts as
a selectively permeable mem‐
brane that determines which sub‐
stances will be able to enter the
epithelium.[3]

Cell junctions

Cell junctions are especially

abundant in epithelial tissues.
They consist of protein com‐
plexes and provide contact be‐
tween neighbouring cells, be‐
tween a cell and the extracellular
matrix, or they build up the para‐
cellular barrier of epithelia and
control the paracellular trans‐
port.[18]

Cell junctions are the contact

points between plasma mem‐
brane and tissue cells. There are
mainly 5 different types of cell
junctions: tight junctions, ad‐
herens junctions, desmosomes,
hemidesmosomes, and gap junc‐
tions. Tight junctions are a pair of
trans-membrane protein fused on
outer plasma membrane. Ad‐
herens junctions are a plaque
(protein layer on the inside
plasma membrane) which at‐
taches both cells' microfila‐
ments. Desmosomes attach to
the microfilaments of cytoskele‐
ton made up of keratin protein.
Hemidesmosomes resemble
desmosomes on a section. They
are made up of the integrin (a
transmembrane protein) instead
of cadherin. They attach the ep‐
ithelial cell to the basement
membrane. Gap junctions con‐
nect the cytoplasm of two cells
and are made up of proteins
called connexins (six of which
come together to make a connex‐
ion).
Development

Epithelial tissues are derived

from all of the embryological
germ layers:

from ectoderm (e.g., the epi‐

dermis);
from endoderm (e.g., the lining
of the gastrointestinal tract);
from mesoderm (e.g., the inner
linings of body cavities).

However, it is important to note

that pathologists do not consider
endothelium and mesothelium
(both derived from mesoderm) to
be true epithelium. This is be‐
cause such tissues present very
different pathology. For that rea‐
son, pathologists label cancers in
endothelium and mesothelium
sarcomas, whereas true epithelial
cancers are called carcinomas.
Also, the filaments that support
these mesoderm-derived tissues
are very distinct. Outside of the
field of pathology, it is, in general,
accepted that the epithelium
arises from all three germ layers.

Functions
Forms of secretion in glandular tissue

Different characteristics of glands of the

body

Epithelial tissues have as their

primary functions:
1. to protect the tissues that lie
beneath from radiation, desicca‐
tion, toxins, invasion by
pathogens, and physical trauma
2. the regulation and exchange of
chemicals between the underly‐
ing tissues and a body cavity
3. the secretion of hormones into
the circulatory system, as well as
the secretion of sweat, mucus,
enzymes, and other products that
are delivered by ducts[19]
4. to provide sensation[20]

Glandular tissue

Glandular tissue is the type of ep‐

ithelium that forms the glands
from the infolding of epithelium
and subsequent growth in the un‐
derlying connective tissue. There
are two major classifications of
glands: endocrine glands and ex‐
ocrine glands:

Endocrine glands secrete their

product into the extracellular
space where it is rapidly taken
up by the circulatory system.
Exocrine glands secrete their
products into a duct that then
delivers the product to the lu‐
men of an organ or onto the
free surface of the epithelium.
Sensing the extracellu‐
lar environment

"Some epithelial cells are

ciliated, especially in res-
piratory epithelium, and
they commonly exist as a
sheet of polarised cells
forming a tube or tubule
with cilia projecting into
the lumen." Primary cilia
on epithelial cells provide
chemosensation, thermo-
ception, and mechanosen-
sation of the extracellular
 environment by playing
"a sensory role mediating
specific signalling cues,
including soluble factors
in the external cell envi-
ronment, a secretory role
in which a soluble protein
is released to have an ef-
fect downstream of the
fluid flow, and mediation
of fluid flow if the cilia are
motile."[21]

Clinical significance
Epithelial cell infected with Chlamydia
pneumoniae

The slide shows at (1) an epithe‐

lial cell infected by Chlamydia
pneumonia; their inclusion bodies
shown at (3); an uninfected cell
shown at (2) and (4) showing the
difference between an infected
cell nucleus and an uninfected
cell nucleus.

Epithelium grown in culture can

be identified by examining its
morphological characteristics.
Epithelial cells tend to cluster to‐
gether, and have a "characteristic
tight pavement-like appearance".
But this is not always the case,
such as when the cells are de‐
rived from a tumor. In these
cases, it is often necessary to
use certain biochemical markers
to make a positive identification.
The intermediate filament pro‐
teins in the cytokeratin group are
almost exclusively found in ep‐
ithelial cells, and so are often
used for this purpose.[22]
Carcinomas develop in epithelial
tissues. Sarcomas develop in
connective tissue.[23]

When epithelial cells or tissues

are damaged from cystic fibrosis,
sweat glands are also damaged,
causing a frosty coating of the
skin.

Etymology and pro-

nunciation
The word epithelium uses the
Greek roots ἐπί (epi), "on" or
"upon", and θηλή (thēlē), "nipple".
Epithelium is so called because
the name was originally used to
describe the translucent covering
of small "nipples" of tissue on the
lip.[24] The word has both mass
and count senses; the plural form
is epithelia.

Additional images

Squamous Epithelium 100x

Human cheek cells (Nonkera‐
tinized stratified squamous ep‐
ithelium) 500x

Histology of female urethra

showing transitional epithelium
 Histology of sweat gland show‐
ing stratified cuboidal epithelium

See also
Blastula
Dark cell
Epithelial-mesenchymal transi‐
tion
Epithelial polarity
Gastrulation
Glycocalyx
 Neuroepithelial cell
Skin cancer
Sulcular epithelium
Triploblasty

References
1. https://dictionary.cam‐
bridge.org/dictionary/english/ep‐
ithelium
2. Eurell, Jo Ann C.; et al., eds.
(2006). Dellmann's textbook of
veterinary histology . Wiley-
Blackwell. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-7817‐
-4148-4.
3. Freshney, 2002: p. 3
4. Marieb, Elaine M. (1995). Hu‐
man Anatomy and Physiology (3rd
ed.). Benjamin/Cummings.
pp. 103–104. ISBN 0-8053-4281-8.
5. Platzer, Werner (2008). Color
atlas of human anatomy: Loco‐
motor system . Thieme. p. 8.
ISBN 978-3-13-533306-9.
6. van Lommel, 2002: p. 97
7. van Lommel, 2002: p. 94
8. Melfi, Rudy C.; Alley, Keith E.,
eds. (2000). Permar's oral embry‐
ology and microscopic anatomy:
a textbook for students in dental
hygiene . Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-683‐
-30644-6.
9. Pratt, Rebecca. "Epithelial
Cells" . AnatomyOne. Amirsys, Inc.
Archived from the original on
2012-12-19. Retrieved 2012-09-28.
10. Jenkins, Gail W.; Tortora, Ger‐
ard J. (2013). Anatomy and Physi‐
ology from Science to Life (3rd
ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
pp. 110–115. ISBN 978-1-118‐
-12920-3.
11. Ross, Michael H.; Pawlina,
Wojciech (2015). Histology: A Text
and Atlas: With Correlated Cell
and Molecular Biology (7th ed.).
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
p. 528, 604. ISBN 978‐
-1451187427.
12. Kühnel, Wolfgang (2003).
Color atlas of cytology, histology,
and microscopic anatomy .
Thieme. p. 102. ISBN 978-3-13‐
-562404-4.
13. Pratt, Rebecca. "Simple
Cuboidal Epithelium" . Anatomy‐
One. Amirsys, Inc. Retrieved
2012-09-28.
14. Eroschenko, Victor P. (2008).
"Integumentary System". DiFiore's
Atlas of Histology with Functional
Correlations. Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins. pp. 212–234.
ISBN 9780781770576.
15. Marieb, Elaine (2011).
Anatomy & Physiology. Boston:
Benjamin Cummings. p. 133.
ISBN 0321616405.
16. Kristensen, Niels P.; Georges,
Chauvin (1 December 2003). "In‐
tegument". Lepidoptera, Moths
and Butterflies: Morphology,
Physiology, and Development :
Teilband . Walter de Gruyter.
p. 484. ISBN 978-3-11-016210-3.
Retrieved 10 January 2013.
17. McConnell, Thomas H.
(2006). The nature of disease:
pathology for the health profes‐
sions . Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-7817‐
-5317-3.
18. Alberts, Bruce (2002). Molec‐
ular biology of the cell (4. ed.).
New York [u.a.]: Garland. p. 1067.
ISBN 0-8153-4072-9.
19. van Lommel, 2002: p. 91
20. Alberts, Bruce (2002). Molec‐
ular biology of the cell (4 ed.).
New York [u.a.]: Garland. p. 1267.
ISBN 0-8153-4072-9.
21. Adams, M.; Smith, U.M.; Lo‐
gan, C.V.; Johnson, C.A. (2008).
"Recent advances in the molecu‐
lar pathology, cell biology and ge‐
netics of ciliopathies" . Journal of
Medical Genetics. 45 (5):
257–267.
doi:10.1136/jmg.2007.054999 .
PMID 18178628 .
22. Freshney, 2002: p. 9
23. "Types of cancer" . Cancer Re‐
search UK. 28 October 2014. Re‐
trieved 13 October 2016.
24. Blerkom, edited by Jonathan
Van; Gregory, Linda (2004). Essen‐
tial IVF : basic research and clini‐
cal applications. Boston: Kluwer
Academic Publishers. p. 3.
ISBN 978-1-4020-7551-3.

Bibliography
 Freshney, R.I. (2002). "Introduc‐
tion". In Freshney, R. Ian; Fresh‐
ney, Mary. Culture of epithelial
cells . John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978-0-471-40121-6.
van Lommel, Alfons T.L.
(2002). From cells to organs: a
histology textbook and atlas .
Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020‐
-7257-4.

Further reading
Green H (September 2008).
"The birth of therapy with cul‐
tured cells". BioEssays. 30 (9):
897–903.
doi:10.1002/bies.20797 .
PMID 18693268 .
Kefalides, Nicholas A.; Borel,
Jacques P., eds. (2005). Base‐
ment membranes: cell and
molecular biology . Gulf Profes‐
sional Publishing. ISBN 978-0‐
-12-153356-4.
Nagpal R; Patel A; Gibson MC
(March 2008). "Epithelial topol‐
ogy". BioEssays. 30 (3): 260–6.
doi:10.1002/bies.20722 .
PMID 18293365 .
Yamaguchi Y; Brenner M; Hear‐
ing VJ (September 2007).
"The regulation of skin pig‐
mentation" (Review). J. Biol.
 Chem. 282 (38): 27557–61.
doi:10.1074/jbc.R700026200 .
PMID 17635904 .

External links
Look up epithelium in Wik‐
tionary, the free dictionary.

Epithelium Photomicrographs

1Histology at KUMC epithel-

epith02 Simple squamous ep‐
ithelium of the glomerulus (kid‐
ney) 2 Diagrams of simple squa‐
mous epithelium 3Histology at
KUMC epithel-epith12 Stratified
squamous epithelium of the
vagina 4Histology at KUMC
epithel-epith14 Stratified squa‐
mous epithelium of the skin (thin
skin) 5Histology at KUMC ep‐
ithel-epith15 Stratified squa‐
mous epithelium of the skin
(thick skin) 6 Stratified squa‐
mous epithelium of the esopha‐
gus

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