blastula stage 

An early stage of embryonic development in animals. It is produced by cleavage of

a fertilized ovum and consists of a spherical layer of around 128 cells surrounding
a central fluid-filled cavity called the blastocoel. The blastula follows the morula
and precedes the gastrula in the developmental sequence.

Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction by self-impregnation resulting

in the production of a zygote from an unfertilized egg. Thus, it is also referred to
by many as “virgin birth”. Parthenogenesis takes place in both asexual animals
and plants. In animals, the embryo develops from an unfertilized egg. In plants, it
is a part of the process, apomixis. Parthenogenesis occurs in many types of
invertebrates including scorpions, nematodes, mites, water fleas, wasps, some bees,
and other insects. Parthenogenesis may occur in some vertebrate animals as well,
such as amphibians, some fish, reptiles, and in few bird species.

Parthenogenesis has been observed in some types of sharks,  such as the blacktip
shark, the bonnethead shark, and the zebra shark. The zebra shark (Stegostoma
fasciatum) can alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction by
parthenogenesis. They go for asexual especially in the absence of a potential mate.

What Are Specialized Cells?

Your body is an amazing feat of engineering! It includes miles of nerve fibers and
blood vessels, many feet of digestive system, a strong skeletal framework, and a
protective covering. Even more amazing is the fact that all of this is created using
only one type of component: the cell.
The cell is the basic unit of life. This makes sense given that every part of our body
is made up of them, but not all cells are the same. In fact, our bodies are made up of
over 200 types of specialized cells. Being specialized means that even though they
are similar, cells differ in size, shape, or function depending on their role in our
bodies. In other words, each type of cell is modified to work in the way our bodies
need it to.
Specialized cells group together to form tissues. Tissues then form organs like the
heart, stomach, or skin. Organs also come together to form systems such as the
respiratory system or digestive system. These systems come together to form our
bodies. When you think about the big picture, it makes sense that a muscle cell
would be different from a nerve cell or a bone cell. In this lesson, we will look at a
few examples of specialized cells and how they are uniquely designed to carry out
specific functions in our bodies.
Epithelial Tissue: There are three principal classifications associated with epithelial cells. Squamous
epithelium has cells that are wider than they are tall. Cuboidal epithelium has cells whose height and width
are approximately the same. Columnar epithelium has cells taller than they are wide.

Simple Epithelia

Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells. They are typically where
absorption, secretion  and filtration occur. The thinness of the epithelial barrier
facilitates these processes.

Simple epithelial tissues are generally classified by the shape of their cells. The four
major classes of simple epithelium are: 1) simple squamous; 2) simple cuboidal; 3)
simple columnar; and 4) pseudostratified.

Simple Squamous

Simple squamous epithelium cells are flat in shape and arranged in a single layer.
This single layer is thin enough to form a membrane that compounds can move
through via passive diffusion. This epithelial type is found in the walls of capillaries,
linings of the pericardium, and the linings of the alveoli of the lungs.

Simple Cuboidal

Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer cells that are as tall as they are
wide. The important functions of the simple cuboidal epithelium are secretion and
absorption. This epithelial type is found in the small collecting ducts of the kidneys,
pancreas, and salivary glands.

Simple Columnar

Simple columnar epithelium is a single row of tall, closely packed cells, aligned in a
row. These cells are found in areas with high secretory function (such as the wall of
the stomach), or absorptive areas (as in small intestine ). They possess cellular
extensions (e.g., microvilli in the small intestine, or the cilia found almost exclusively
in the female reproductive tract).

Pseudostratified

These are simple columnar epithelial cells whose nuclei appear at different heights,
giving the misleading (hence pseudo) impression that the epithelium is stratified
when the cells are viewed in cross section.
Pseudostratified epithelium can also possess fine hair-like extensions of their apical
(luminal) membrane called cilia. In this case, the epithelium is described as ciliated
pseudostratified epithelium. Ciliated epithelium is found in the airways (nose,
bronchi), but is also found in the uterus and fallopian tubes of females, where the
cilia propel the ovum to the uterus.

Stratified Epithelium

Stratified epithelium differs from simple epithelium by being multilayered. It is

therefore found where body linings have to withstand mechanical or chemical insults.

Stratified epithelia are more durable and protection is one their major functions.
Since stratified epithelium consists of two or more layers, the basal cells divide and
push towards the apex, and in the process flatten the apical cells.

Stratified epithelia can be columnar, cuboidal, or squamous type. However, it can

also have the following specializations:

Keratinized Epithelia

In keratinized epithelia, the most apical layers (exterior) of cells are dead and lose
their nucleus and cytoplasm. They contain a tough, resistant protein called keratin.
This specialization makes the epithelium waterproof, and it is abundant in
mammalian skin. The lining of the esophagus is an example of a non-keratinized or
moist stratified epithelium.

Transitional Epithelia

Transitional epithelia are found in tissues that stretch and it can appear to be
stratified cuboidal when the tissue is not stretched, or stratified squamous when the
organ is distended and the tissue stretches. It is sometimes called the urothelium
since it is almost exclusively found in the bladder, ureters, and urethra.

Brief Survey Of The Diversity Of The Animal Kingdom

The sponges are a group of sedentary aquatic animals first
classified as plants. Although sponges and other animals
evolved from protists, sponges may have arisen
independently from the other animals. Sponges obtain their
nutrients by drawing water into a central cavity and filtering
the water for food. They are able to move water through their
bodies through the coordinated beating of flagellated cells
that line their pores. Sponges differ from other animals in that
they lack distinct body tissues and body symmetry.
A second group of animals that may also have independently
evolved from protists contains the cnidarians and the
ctenophorans. These animals are radially symmetrical ,
meaning that their body parts are arranged symmetrically
around one main axis. Examples include jellyfish, sea
anemones, and corals. Cnidarians differ from ctenophorans in
that their mouth and anus form a single opening, whereas
ctenophorans have separate openings for the mouth and
anus so that food moves in a single direction through the gut.
The remaining metazoans are more closely related to each
other than to the other animals. They may be classified into
three groups: the acoelomates , the pseudocoelomates ,
and the coelomates. All these animals are bilaterally
symmetrical , meaning that their bodies can be divided into
mirror images through only a single plane.
Acoelomates are animals that lack internal body cavities. The
acoelomates include the flatworms and the ribbon worms.
Flatworms have distinct organs but do not have a fully formed
digestive tract or a means for transporting oxygen through the
body. Thus all cells must undergo respiration individually,
necessitating a flat body whereby all cells have access to
oxygen at the body surface. Ribbon worms are similar to
flatworms but have a complete digestive tract and a
simple circulatory system.
Pseudocoelomates have a simple, fluid-filled body cavity in
which many of the internal organs float. The body cavity
protects the internal organs from external jarring and allows
them to grow somewhat independently from the rest of the
body. The pseudocoelomates include the rotifers and the
nematodes. Nematodes are probably the most numerous of
all animal species, inhabiting virtually every corner of Earth.
One of the most well-studied organisms in the world is the
nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, a roundworm that lives in
soil.
The third group of bilaterally symmetrical metazoans, the
coelomates, have a relatively complex body cavity inside
which the organs are suspended from the body wall. Most
coelomates can be further divided into two groups,
the protostomes and the deuterostomes , which are
distinguished by the way in which cells of
their zygotes divide. Protostomes include mollusks such as
snails, annelids such as earthworms, and arthropods such
as insects. The deuterostomes include echinoderms such as
starfishes and chordates such as humans.
see also Binomial (Linnaean System); Phylogenetic
Relationships of Major