ORGAN SYSTEMS OF SOME ANIMALS

All animals share common characteristics although they differ in shapes and structures. The overall structure of an animal
is its body plan. The body plan of an animal determines the lifestyle it leads and the way it functions in its environment.

The levels of the organization become higher as animals become complex in form. The essential functions of less complex
animals are carried out on the cell or simple tissue level. For these animals, individual cells can specialize in a single task such as
digestion or reproduction. Cell specialization enables the division of labor among cells in an animal’s body. Cells in higher forms
of animals are organized into different functional units which are the organ system.

Sponges
In invertebrates such as sponges, digestion occurs within individual cells. Its body is
perforated by many pores through which water enters its captivity. Between the outer
and inner cell layers are hard needles called spicules and fibers of a tough protein
called sponging. They strengthen and protect the sponge. Sponges have no guts and
are able to consume only organisms small enough to be absorbed by the cells lining
their internal cavity.

Hydra
Some invertebrates, such as hydra, have an incomplete digestive system. There is a
single opening known as the gastrovascular cavity which serves as the mouth and anus.
The cells of hydra are organized into tissues. The inner gut cavity or its gastrovascular
cavity is specialized for extracellular digestion. Its outer cell layer contains stinging cells
called nematocysts. The hydra takes in food by paralyzing its prey with its stinging cells
found in the tentacles. The prey is then drawn into the gut to be digested. The inner layer
is specialized for releasing digestive enzymes and absorbing nutrients from the digested
food.

Earthworm
Earthworms are the first segmented worms to evolve. Their body is partitioned into
segments. In each segment, parts of the excretory, circulatory, and nervous systems are
repeated. The front segments contain a small brain and the sense organs. Each segment
is controlled by an individual nerve center. A nerve cord that runs along the underside
of the worm connects the nerve centers with the brain o coordinate all body activities.
Its digestive tract extends from the mouth to the anus. It is suspended within the larger
tube of the coelom.

Mollusks
Mollusks have an organ system for circulation, respiration, digestion, excretion, nerve
impulse conduction, and reproduction. There are three body parts shared by all
mollusks: the muscular foot, head, and visceral mass. The muscular foot is used in
locomotion. The head contains the mouth, sense organs, and cerebral ganglia. The
visceral mass contains the heart, and the organs of digestion, excretion, and
reproduction. Covering the visceral mass is the mantle, an epidermal layer that, in most
species, secretes a shell.

Insects
Arthropods, such as insects, arachnids, and crustaceans, have a coelom, segmented
bodies, and jointed appendages. The body is divided into three distinct regions: head,
thorax, and abdomen. Each region is further divided into segments that fuse during
development. Arthropods have an external skeleton, or exoskeleton, made of chitin. In
addition, these insects have a complex muscular system and wings to move quickly from
place to place. Insects have a thick, way exoskeleton that prevents water loss. Three
pairs of legs and wings are attached to the thorax. Insects require respiratory, nervous,
circulatory, and digestive systems to function. They breathe through tiny openings on
their abdomen and thorax called spiracles. Insects have a complex internal nervous
system connected to the external sensory organs. Nerve impulses travel up the nerve
cords to the nerve ganglia that form the brain. Messages from the ganglia travel rapidly
down other nerve cords to the sensory organs. Digested food and other materials travel
through their open circulatory system.

Echinoderms
Most echinoderms have an internal skeleton called an endoskeleton. Compose of
calcium plates, which may include protruding spines. They have a water vascular
system, which is a network of water-filled canals. They have numerous tube feet that aid
in movement, feeding, respiration, and excretion. Digestion takes place in its stomach.
Starfish have no circulatory, respiratory, or excretory systems. Gas exchange and waste excretion take place by diffusion through
the thin walls of the tube feet and through hollow tubes called skin gills that
project from the coelom lining. They have a nervous system but have no head
or brain.

Fish
All fishes have gills that are composed of tiny filaments which are richly supplied
with blood. Gills provide a large surface area for the rapid uptake of oxygen and
the release of carbon dioxide. Fish have well-developed sense organs. Fishes
have closed circulatory systems that pump blood in a single loop from the heart
to the gills, to the body, and back to the heart. Fishes have a well-developed
nervous system – the brain has olfactory bulbs, cerebrum, optic lobes, and
cerebellum.

Amphibians
Digestion is performed by the following digestive organs: esophagus brings food
to the stomach sac, which is connected to the small intestines where most
digestion and absorption take place. Kidneys remove waste from the blood.
Urine passes to the cloaca. From there, it either passes directly to the outside or
is stored in a small bladder.

Amphibians have well-developed nervous and sensory systems. Frogs have a

keen vision for spotting moving insects. Although their ears have no external
sound collectors, they are often very sensitive. Many amphibians have a lateral
line system that detects water movements. They can also respond to the adverse
conditions in their environments by hiding.

Reptiles
Reptiles have a body covering horny scales or plates for protection. These scales
prevent water loss and protect reptiles from the wear and tear associated with
living in rugged, terrestrial environments. All reptiles, after they hatch, breathe air
through the lungs, eliminating respiration through gills. Thus, their tissues involve
in gas exchange are located inside the body, where they can be kept moist.
Reptiles have a circulatory system with a three-chambered heart. However, a
partial division of the ventricle separates the deoxygenated blood from the
oxygenated blood. In alligators and crocodiles, the heart has four separate
chambers allowing total separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

Birds
All birds have feathers, and almost all birds are capable of flying. Birds have air
sacs that store inhaled air which is pushed into the lungs. This keeps the lungs
constantly filled with oxygenated air. The lungs also contain millions of tiny
passages that create a very large surface area for gas exchange with the blood.
Birds have a relatively large, four-chambered heart. The heart beats rapidly to
oxygenated blood flowing to muscles and other tissues.

Birds have a sac-like structure called crop to store and moisten food that is
waiting to be digested. They also have an organ called a gizzard that contains
swallowed stones. Birds have a large brain relative to the size of their bodies, and
the part of the brain that controls flight is the most developed.

Mammals
Mammals, share common features such as the presence of hair, warm-
bloodedness, a four-chambered heart, the presence of muscles, a diaphragm
that aids breathing, four different types of teeth, a highly developed brain, and
viviparous females who can give birth to their young alive.

Mammals have organ systems that have evolved into many shapes for
adaptation to their various environments. Variations in kinds and amounts of hair
also reflect their adaptations. The four-chambered heart and diaphragm are
also adaptations for endothermy. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle below the
rib cage that aids inefficient breathing. The four-chambered heart pumps blood
efficiently. These adaptations result in a high metabolic rate, which helps
mammals maintain a constant body temperature.