HUMAN HISTOLOGY (LECTURE)

LESSON 2: EPITHELIAL TISSUE

=
nd
2 SEMESTER I S.Y. 2021-2022
TRANCRIBED BY: JEAN HERSHEY REYES

OUTLINE  The nuclei of the epithelial cells are often flattened or ovoid, i.e.
egg-shaped, and they are located close to the centre of the
I. Epithelial Tissue IV. Specializations of the cells.
II. Function of E. Tissue Apical Surface  The base found cuboidal and columnar
III. Classification of E. Tissue V. Specializations of the
lateral and basal surfaces

Epithelial Tissue

 Consisting of closely apposed cells without intervening

intercellular substances to form tissues.
 Cells are closed to each other
 Epithelia are avascular (no supply of blood), but all epithelia
"grow" on an underlying layer of vascular connective tissue.
 The connective tissue and the epithelium are separated by a
basement membrane. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
 Epithelium covers all free surfaces of the body. Epithelium also
lines the large internal body cavities, where it is termed  Cells appear cuboidal in sections perpendicular to the surface of
mesothelium (simple squamous) the epithelium.
 Basal lamina- layer where basal cells rest; thin; structural support  Nuclei are round and centrally located.
 Lamina Fibroreticularis- rest on another layer with reticular fiber  Simple cuboidal epithelium occurs in the small excretory ducts of
 Furthermore, the internal surfaces of blood and lymph vessels many glands, the tubules of the kidney and on the surface of the
are lined by epithelium, here called endothelium (simple ovaries.
squamous)
 Basic Tissue: Epithelial, Connective, Muscle and Nerve

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

Function
Protection Skin protects from sunlight & bacteria &
physical damage.

Absorption Lining of small intestine, absorbing

nutrients into blood Simple Columnar Epithelium
Filtration Lining of Kidney tubules filtering wastes
 The cells forming a simple columnar epithelium are taller than
from blood plasma
they are wide.
 The nuclei of cells within the epithelium are usually located at the
Secretion Different glands produce perspiration, oil,
same height within the cells - often close to the base of the cells
digestive enzymes and mucus
and are oval. An example is the simple columnar epithelium which
lines the internal surface of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) from
Classification of Epithelial Tissue the cardiac of the stomach to the rectum.
 Ciliated simple columnar epithelium lines the bronchi, uterus
 Epithelia are classified on the basis of the number of cell layers and oviducts.
and the shape of the cells in the surface layer.  Cilia are specialized for transport of fluid or mucus.
 If there is only one layer of cells in the epithelium, it is designated  Arrangement of nuclei is clear
simple.
 If there are two or more layers of cells, it is termed stratified.
 Cells in the surface layer are, as a rule, described according to
their height as squamous (scale- or plate-like), cuboidal or
columnar.

Simple Epithelia

Simple Squamous Epithelium

 This type is composed of a single layer of flattened, scale- or Epithelial Tissue

plate-like cells. It is quite common in the body.
 Present in sites of Exchange as Nephrons & Lungs.

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  Next Layer is of cells with polyhedral outlines. Close to the
Identifying Epithelia surface of the epithelium, cells become more flattened. At the
surface of the epithelium, cells appear like flat scales - similar to
 The outlines of individual epithelial cells are not always the epithelial cells of simple squamous epithelia.
visible, and it may be difficult to identify the shape of the cells.

 It is often helpful to look at the shape, location and spacing of

the nuclei in the epithelium, which together will allow a very
good guess at the shape of the cells forming the epithelium.

Stratified Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelium

 A two-layered cuboidal epithelium is, for example, seen in the

ducts of the sweat glands and major salivary glands.
 Stratified columnar epithelia are found in the excretory ducts of
the mammary gland.

Simple Squamous Epithelium

 Blood vessels are probably

present in all sections you will
ever see.
 They are lined by a simple
squamous epithelium. The
individual epithelial cells are
extremely flattened and form a
much larger part of the surface
than individual cells in cuboidal Stratified Squamous Epithelium
or columnar epithelia. The nuclei
of the squamous epithelial cells  Present in areas subjected to Friction & External Environments as
are also flattened. Skin, Esophagus & Vagina.
 Basal cells often form a well-defined layer at the border of the
epithelium to the underlying connective tissue.

Transitional Epithelium
Simple Columnar Epithelium
 Transitional epithelium is
 The small intestines are lined by found exclusively in the
a simple columnar epithelium. excretory urinary passages
 Most of the epithelial cells (the renal calyces and pelvis,
(enterocytes) are involved in the the ureter, the urinary bladder,
absorption of components of the and part of the urethra).
digested food in the lumen of
the intestines. o In the "relaxed"
 Complex folds of the intestinal state of the
lining increase the surface area epithelium, it seems
available for absorption. to be formed by
 Glycoproteins and glycolipids many cell layers.
projects from the surface of The most basal cells
microvilli. have a cuboidal or
columnar shape.
There are several
layers of polyhedral
Stratified Epithelia cells, and, finally, a layer of superficial cells, which have
a convex, dome-shaped luminal surface.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium o In the distended state of the epithelium only one or
two layers of cuboidal cells are followed by a
 Composed of several layers (2-20), vary in thickness depending superficial layer of large, low cuboidal or squamous
on the specific organ. cells. In the distended state the epithelium will resemble
 The deepest cells, which are in contact with the basement a stratified squamous epithelium.
membrane, are cuboidal or columnar in shape.

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 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
 Composed of one Layer of Cells
 All cells of this type of epithelium
are in contact with the
basement membrane, but not all
of them reach the surface of the
epithelium.
 The epithelium will look
stratified but it is not -hence its
name "pseudostratified".
 Ciliated pseudostratified
columnar epithelia are found in
the Respiratory System.
Specializations of the Apical Surface
 Microvilli and stereocilia are finger- or thread-shaped extensions
of the epithelial cells. Their main function is to increase the
surface area of epithelial cells.
 They are typically found in epithelia active in absorption.
 Microvilli contain actin filaments, which are in contact with the
terminal web of the cell. The only difference between microvilli
and stereocilia is their length.
o Thinner; shorter; found at the apical center
o Vertical line; brush and strated border
o Increase cell surface area
 Microvilli are much shorter than stereocilia. Stereocilia are,
despite their name ("cilia"), not actively moving structures.
Microvilli
 EM of apical (top) surface of two epithelial cells whose cell
membranes lie next to each other. The microvilli (1) of the striated
border are very straight and regimented in appearance.
Microfilaments within them can be seen extending down into the
terminal web (2), which is an aggregate of fine filaments lying in
the cell cytoplasm. Several junctional complexes are seen
including tight junction (zonula occludens =3); intermediate
junction (zonula adherens =4); and desmosome
Specializations of the Lateral and Basal Surfaces
 Components that is responsible for the structural integrity of
Epithelial Tissue & hence organ’s Integrity.
Examples:
I. Desmosomes ex. Epidermis
o Specializations of the lateral cell membranes which
mediate cell adhesion. Proteins inserted into the cell
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membrane of the adjacent cells form a protein-
"zipper" linking the cells. Fibers of the cytoskeleton
attach to the cytoplasmic side of the desmosome to
stabilize the area of contact.
II. Hemidesmosomes mediate the attachment of the epithelial
cells to the basal lamina.
o A group of glycoproteins (cadherins) inserted into
the opposing plasma membranes mediate cell-to-
cell adhesion at desmosomes and also at the
adhesion zones or patches mentioned below.
Integrins, another group of proteins, allow the cell
to attach to the matrix proteins of the basement
membrane.
III. Basal infoldings of plasmalemma – increase absorbing
capacity. Ex. Renal tubule
Specializations of the Lateral Surfaces
 A zone of adhesion (zonula adherens)
o Structurally not as well-characterized as the
desmosomes. The zonula adherens typically
appears as a close and consistent apposition (15-
20 NM) of the cell membranes close to the apical
cell surface and surrounding the entire cell. Again,
fibres of the cytoskeleton insert into the cytoplasmic
side of this membrane specialization.
 A tight junction (zonula occludens) between epithelial cells
mediates this aspect of epithelial function.
o Proteins inserted into the cell membranes of
adjacent cells "stitch" the membranes of the cells
together and provide an effective barrier to the
diffusion of substances from the outside of the
epithelium (called luminal side if the epithelium
covers the surface of a tubular structure).
 Gap Junction (Communicating Junction )
o Cells are closely apposed but not fused,
separated by intercellular space.
o Plasma membranes consist of tiny tubes known as
connexons.
Additional Information
Keratinized
 Dry epithelium
 Cells are covered with keratin filaments
 Anucleated
Non-Keratinized
 Wet epithelium (oral cavity and esophagus)
 Small amount of keratin
 Nucleated; identify individual cell
 Transitional
o Resist stretching forces
o Domed (umbrella cells)
o Cuboidal/Columnar
 Pseudostratified
o Made up of single cell; simple type of epithelium
Term Definition
Stereocilia Considered as microvilli; length
is as long as cilia (same function
as microvilli)
Desmosomes Wider gap
Hemidesmosomes Facilitate the attachment; found
in the stratum basila (basal
surface)
 Zonula Nearest at the apical surface;
cells are tightly use together
Adherens Small gap in between the cells;
filled with adhesion proteins
Gap Junction Widest gap
Connexons Exchange of substance; small
molecules or ions

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 HUMAN HISTOLOGY (LECTURE)

LESSON 3: CONNECTIVE TISSUE

=
nd
2 SEMESTER I S.Y. 2021-2022
TRANCRIBED BY: JEAN HERSHEY REYES

Function of Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix Cells

o Extracellular fluid o Fixed / Resident cells

 Connective tissue has fewer cells than epithelial tissue that
o Ground substances (stays permanently)
scattered in the extracellular matrix.
 The cells are not found as densely packed cells  Hydrated, amorphous  Fibroblasts (most
 Binds body parts together (formless) material abundant
 Providing structural support (transparent); this is not connective tissue
 Serving as a medium for exchange visible under the cells), mast cells,
 Aiding in body defense and protection compound microscope macrophages,
 Forming a site for fat storage adipocytes,
 The abundant water in reticular cells
Organization the GS makes the
diffusion of oxygen and o Transient / Visiting
 Cells; scattered individually nutrient from blood to cells (phagocytic
 Extracellular Matrix; main component for diffusion connective tissue cells cells)
o Fibers to connect easily.
o Ground substances  Plasma cells,
o Extracellular fluid  Composed of: lymphocytes,
proteoglycans neutrophils,
(macromolecules; eosinophils,
gelatinous character), basophils,
glycoprotein; fibrillin monocytes,
(formation of elastic inflammatory
fibers); fibronectin, macrophages
laminine and
thrombospondin

 Proteoglycans consist of
core protein to which
glycous amino glycan
are attached

 Main Type: hyaluronic

acid

o Fibers (supportive
function)

Embryonic Connective
Tissue
o Mesenchymal
connective tissue
o Mucous connective
tissue
 Collagen
 Elastic
Adult Connective Tissue  Reticular
Fixed/Resident Cells
o Connective Tissue Proper
Fibroblasts -Fibrocytes
 Loose Connective
Tissue  Derived from undifferentiated mesenchymal cells
 Dense Connective  Synthesize the extracellular matrix
Tissue  Synthesis of protein, glycoprotein that are present in the ground
 Regular substance.
 Collageno  Precursor of the collagen and reticular fiber
us
 Fixed in connective tissue, capable in some movements, may
 Elastic
undergo cell divisions, may differentiate into adipocytes,
 Reticular tissue
chondrocytes, and osteoblasts
 Adipose Tissue

o Specialized Connective
Tissue Fibroblast (active) o staining cytoplasm
 Cartilage o Dark stain, large, granular, ovoid
 Bone nucleus containing a prominent
 Hemopoietic nucleolus
system/blood o Spindle or fusiform

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 o Nucleus is found eccentrically metachromatically by toluidine blue → heparin, histamine (dark
o Irregular cytoplasmic processes purple)

Fibrocytes o Smaller and with acidophilic Adipocytes (Adipose Cells)

(inactive); resting cytoplasm
cells o Small, elongated, deeply stain nucleus  Derived from undifferentiated mesenchymal cells or fibroblasts
o Wound healing  Synthesis and storage of triglycerides
o Smaller in terms of size.  Present in all connective tissue.

Unilocular fat cells o Contain single, large fat droplet

form white adipose o Spherical or polyhedral , peripherally
Macrophages (Histiocytes) tissue placed nucleus
o Signet ring appearance
 Are derived from monocyte
 Removes cellular debris and in protects the body against Multilocular fat o Contain multiple, small fat droplets
foreign invaders (phagocytosis) cells form brown o Smaller and more polygonal than
 Non-immune or inflammatory response by acting as phagocytic adipose tissue white fat cells
cells; immune response by serving as antigen presenting cells o Pushes and flattens the nucleus
that process and introduce antigens to lymphocytes. cytoplasmic organelles to one side of
the cell
o Lungs: Pulmonary Alveolar Macrophages o a signet ring cell is a cell with a large
o Liver: Kupffer cells vacuole.
o Connective Tissue: Histiocytes
o Skin: Langerhans cells
o Nervous Tissue: Microglia Reticular Cells
o Bone: Osteoclasts
 Specialized fibroblasts that synthesize Type III collagen
 Type of white blood cells; widely distributed all over the body  Abundant in hemopoietic tissue, bone marrow, lymphoid organs
 Cell surface is uneven, varying from short, blunt projections to (lymph nodes; spleen) and liver
finger-like filopodia  Slightly larger than fibroblasts with large and lightly stained
 Cytoplasm is basophilic and contains many small vacuoles and nucleus
small dense granules  Type of fiber present (fiberblast-collagen is present)
 Eccentric, dark stain, indented nucleus doesn’t display nucleoli
Transient / Visiting cells

Plasma Cells

 Derived from B lymphocytes, resided in chronic inflammation

areas
 Present in limited numbers in all connective tissue but
numerous in the digestive tract
 Produce immunoglobulins or antibodies

 Large, ovoid
 Eccentrically placed nucleus
 Intense basophilic cytoplasm → rER >>> → Ab production

Mast Cells

 Probably derived from precursors in

the bone marrow
 Inflammation and immediate types
hypersensitivity reaction; wound
healing and defense against to
pathogen

 Ovoid and possess centrally placed,

spherical nucleus

 Numerous granules in the

cytoplasm which are stained

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 Leucocytes

 Present in variable numbers in practically all connective tissue Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue

 abundant ground substance and

Neutrophil o phagocytosis and digest bacteria in extracellular fluid housing fibroblasts,
(microphages) acute inflammation areas adipocytes, macrophages, mast cells,
Eosinophil o elevated due to parasitism; parasitic and some undifferentiated cells
agents  Contains many transient cells →
Basophil o mast cells inflammation, allergic reactions, and
Lymphocyte B o plasma cells; production of antibodies immune response
Monocyte o macrophage  Loosely woven collagen, reticular,
and elastic fibers
 Deep to skin, below the mesothelial
lining, adventitia of blood vessels,
surrounds the parenchyma of
glands
 Comprises the hypodermis; tunica adventitia of blood vessels,
lamina propria, and some mucous of digestive, respiratory and
urogenital tracts
 Two groups: Ordinary Loose Connective Tissue Types
(extracellular fiber is collagen; fibroblasts) and Modified Loose
Connective Tissue Type (different in cellular and fibriliar
composition from ordinary)

Fibers Mesenchymal Connective Tissue

 consists of mesenchymalcells in a gel-

Collagen Fibers o Inelastic; colorless. Tendons (white like, amorphous ground substance
Collagen Type I color to fresh tissues) containing scattered reticular fibers
o 19 types of collagen; I, II and III
(connective tissue)  Mesenchymal cells
o Possess tensile strength o Oval, large, weak
o Unbranched basophilianucleus exhibiting
o Most of the fibrils have diameters of fine chromatin network and
30–70nm prominent one or two
o Collagen fibers with diameters of 2– nucleoli
10μm often form wavy fibers, like o Sparse, little, pale staining
undulating locks of hair. cytoplasm extends small
o Mason's Trichrome stain (blue) processes in several
o Formation: procollagen, tropocollagen, directions that connect each
microfibrils, macrofibrils, collagen fiber other

Elastic Fibers o lesser tensile strength Mucous Connective Tissue

o elastic – protein elastin
o fibers branch
o appears pinkish yellow lines
(unstained)
o not widely distributed
o formed by fibroblast, smooth muscle
cells and mesenchymal cells
o tropoelastin precursor of elastin
o Orcein stain (blue to black)
o Found in oracle and external acoustic
meatus of the ear; external nose;
auditory tube, epiglottis
 Loose, amorphous connective tissue
exhibiting a jelly-like matrix primarily
composed of hyaluronic acid and
type I and III collagen fibers and
fibroblast
 Common in embryo but rare in adults
 Wharton jelly → umbilical cord,
subdermal connective tissue of
embryo

Reticular Fiber o made up of Type III collagen

o Ordinary: Type I
o very fine fibers that branch
o argyrophilic fibers Reticular Tissue
o comprises the lamina fibroreticularis
o not widely distributed (stained black)  Major component: type III collagen fiber form mesh-like
networks interspersed with fibroblasts and macrophages
Classification of Connective Tissue Proper  Liver sinusoids, adipose tissue, bone marrow, lymph node, spleen,
smooth muscle, islet of Langerhans
1. Loose Connective Tissue
o Consists of more cell and fewer fiber

2. Dense Connective Tissue

o Consists of fewer cell and more fiber

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  Tendons, ligaments

Adipose Tissue Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue

 largest energy storage site of the body  Possess coarse

 stored in the subcutaneous area; also functions as thermal branching elastic fibers
insulator with only a few
 Two forms of Adipose Tissue: collagen fibers forming
networks
1. Yellow/White- Single fat vacuole; adult human body
2. Brown- numerous droplets; body of newborns  Elastic fibers are
arranged parallel to
Elastic Tissue one another and form
either thin sheets or
 made up of elastic fibers that form bundles arranged parallel to fenestrated membrane
each other
 Found in ligamentum flava of vertebral column and
suspensory ligament of penis  Large blood vessels
(aorta), ligamenta flava
Dense Connective Tissue of the vertebral column,
suspensory ligament of
the penis
 Has same component as loose CT except that it has many more
fibers and fewer cells
 Orientation and arrangement of bundles of collagen fibers →
Resistant to stress

o Random → dense irregular CT

o Parallel or organized fashion → dense regular CT

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

 Contains mostly coarse collagen fibers interwoven into a

meshwork
 Collagen bundles are packed so tightly → space is limited for
ground substances and cells
 Scatter fine network of elastic fibers
 Fibroblasts >>>>>
 Dermis of skin, sheath of nerves, capsules of spleen, testes, ovary,
kidney, and lymph nodes

Dense Regular Collagenous Connective Tissue

 Is composed of coarse collagen bundles densely packed and

oriented into parallel cylinders or sheets that resist tensile forces
 Little space can be occupied by ground substances and cells
 Thin, sheet-like fibroblasts are located between bundles of
collagen with their long axes parallel to the bundles
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 HUMAN HISTOLOGY (LECTURE)

LESSON 5: CARTILAGE AND BONE

=
2nd SEMESTER I S.Y. 2021-2022
TRANCRIBED BY: JEAN HERSHEY REYES

Cartilage Hyaline cartilage - structure/cell types/characteristics

1. Perichondrium
A. Important for:  Vascularized connective tissue sheath surrounding
 Support of soft tissues cartilage (except in case of articular cartilage).
 Formation and growth of long bones  Rich in collagen.
 Durability of articular joints  main cell type - fibroblasts
 Inner layer contains cells that are thought by some to
B. Consists of an cartilage matrix (ground substance) be fibroblasts and by others to be undifferentiated
containing: mesenchyme cells. In any event, the cells can
 Chondroblasts and chondrocytes (cartilage cells) differentiate to form chondroblasts.
 Collagen and in some cases elastin fibers
 Glycosaminoglycans 2. Chondroblasts
 Proteoglycans, proteoglycan aggregates  Immature cartilage cells. Secrete extracellular
 Water matrix, but are not yet imprisoned in a lacuna.
 Glycoproteins- chondronectin
3. Chondrocytes
C. The qualities of the different types of cartilage depend on.  Mature cartilage cells that are embedded in the
 The differences in the type of collagen and concentration extracellular matrix.
of collagen and elastic fibers in the extracellular matrix  Reside in small spaces within the matrix that are
called lacunae.
D. Hyaline and elastic cartilage is surrounded by a connective  Sometimes form groups of 2 or 3 - isogenic group
tissue capsule called the perichondrium that is composed of  Chondrocytes have an elliptic shape.
fibroblasts and associated fibers and ground substance.  Organelle systems in cytoplasm are typical of cells
that secrete.
E. The cartilage itself is devoid of blood vessels.
 Nutrition of cells within the cartilage matrix is dependent 4. Can undergo calcification and can act as the template for
on the diffusion of nutrients from blood capillaries in bone formation and growth.
perichondrium and/or adjacent tissues.

Three Types of Cartilage Elastic Cartilage

o The extracellular matrix of these 3 types differs in terms of a) High concentration of

concentration of collagen and elastin fibers. elastin fibers in extracellular
matrix. (e.g. external ears-
Hyaline Cartilage pinna)

a) Dominant protein component b) Ground substance - yellow in

of extracellular matrix is color (due to elastin content)
collagen (type 2).
b) Translucent to bluish-white in c) Chondrocytes are more
life closely packed, no isogenic
c) Important in embryonic groups can be identified
formation and later growth of
long bones - forms epiphyseal d) Chondrocytes exhibit less
plates of long bones accumulation of glycogen and
lipids than in hyaline cartilage.
d) In adult, mainly found lining
e) Does not calcify
 outer wall of
respiratory
passages (e.g.
trachea)
 ventral ends of ribs,
and
 On surfaces of bone
joints where it is
called articular
cartilage.

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 Fibrous Cartilage (Fibrocartilage)
Appositional Growth
a) An irregular, dense, fibrous
tissue with thinly  A layer of chondroblasts can lay down matrix at the outer edge
dispersed, encapsulated of a mass of growing cartilage.
chondrocytes.

b) Contains many very large

bundles of collagen fibers
(type 1).

c) Resists compression and

shear forces. Has durability
and high tensile strength.

d) Found at connection of
tendons to bone and in
intervertebral discs and
some joints

e) No perichondrium

Bone

 Bone is one of the hardest substances in the body.

Histogenesis of Cartilage The Structure of Bone

Interstitial Growth Periosteum

 Mesenchymal cells will  Outer layer of connective tissue

aggregate and differentiate that covers the bone contains
into closely knit clusters of fibroblasts and a high
chondroblasts. concentration of collagen fibers.
 These cells will begin to  Two distinct layers.
secrete collagen and  External layer very
mucopolysaccharide fibrous
matrix.  The internal layer is
 The matrix secretion will more cellular and
cause the chondroblasts to vascularized
be pushed apart.  Fibers penetrate the
 As this occurs, the cartilage calcified bone matrix
cells will undergo and bind periosteum to
divisions and continue to bone - Sharpey’s fibers
secrete matrix.
 In the case of hyaline  The inner layer provides
cartilage, this will result in cells for bone histogenesis during development and in
some small clusters of the healing of fractures.
chondrocytes within the
developing matrix - Endosteum
isogenic groups.
 Eventually the ground  Lines internal surfaces and cavities in bone
substance becomes more  Lines the internal surfaces of bones –medullary marrow
rigid and the cartilage cells and vascular cavities
(now chondrocytes) become  Similar in general function to the periosteum, but much
trapped in lacunae and can thinner
no longer be pushed apart  Does not exhibit two distinct layers
by secretion.
 This sort of growth of o Important roles of the periosteum and endosteum are nutrition of
cartilage is termed interstitial bone cells and provision of osteoblasts for bone histogenesis
growth due to the secretion and repair.
of matrix into the interstitial
regions between cells or
groups of cells.

Page 2 of 3

Bone Cell Types
1. Osteoblasts
 Immature bone cells that synthesize and secrete
the osteoid matrix that will calcify as the bones
extracellular matrix.
 Matrix is composed of glycoproteins and collagen.
 Are located on the surfaces of forming bone and
are not yet embedded in the calcified extracellular
(osteoid) matrix.
 Have cytoplasmic processes that bring them into
contact with neighboring osteoblasts, as well as
nearby osteocytes.
 Cells are round, polygonal or cuboidal and nucleus
is located far from the bone surface.
3. Osteoclasts
 These are large multinucleate cells
 Active in bone resorption during specific stages in
bone formation and healing, and during the
continual reworking of internal bone architecture
that occurs throughout life.
 Important in maintaining calcium balance in the
body - respond to calcitonin (secreted by
parafolllicular cells of thyroid/ultimobranchial bodies
-lowers Ca++concentration in blood),
 And parathyroid hormone (secreted by parathyroid
glands -raises Ca++concentration in blood).
Histogenesis of Skeletal Structure
Two modes of Bone Formation
1. Intramembranous - direct formation of bone structure with no
cartilage template (e.g. flat bones of skull)

2. Endochondral - formed from cartilage template that is

subsequently replaced by bone (e.g. vertebral column, long
bones of limbs).

2. Osteocytes

 Mature bone cells - osteoblasts that have become

embedded in calcified bone matrix.
 They reside in lacunae within the matrix
 Are in contact with neighboring osteocytes via
cytoplasmic processes that extend through small
tunnels called canaliculi.
 Contacting cytoplasmic processes are characterized
by gap junctions. This allows communication
between osteocytes and is important in the transfer
of nutrients to these cells since they generally are
far removed from blood capillaries.
 The cells are flattened and their internal organelles
exhibit the characteristics of cells that have reduced
synthetic activity.
 Osteon = Haversion system (HS)
 Haversion canal (in center of osteon/HS)

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 HUMAN HISTOLOGY (LECTURE)

LESSON 6: MUSCLE TISSUE (ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY)

=
2nd SEMESTER I S.Y. 2021-2022
TRANCRIBED BY: JEAN HERSHEY REYES

Functional Characteristics of Muscle Tissue Skeletal Muscle

 Excitability, or irritability – the ability to receive and respond to

stimuli
 Contractility – the ability to shorten forcibly (most important)
 Extensibility – the ability to be stretched or extended
 Elasticity – the ability to recoil and resume the original resting
length

Muscle Overview

 The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and

smooth
o These types differ in structure, location, function, and
means of activation

Cardiac Muscle

 Cardiac muscle cells branch, are striated,

are uninucleate (B) and have intercalated
discs (A).

o Locations: heart  Muscle fibers arranged in groups (fascicle)

o Function: involuntary, rhythmic o Epimysium enclose the entire (dense irregular)
contraction o Perimysium surrounds the individual fascicle
o Endomysium individually wrapped the muscle fiber
 Muscle fibers, myocytes and myoid cells
 Number and location of nucleus: 1-2 Myofibrils
nuclei (central portion of muscle fiber)

Skeletal Muscle

 Skeletal muscle cells run the full length of a

muscle. The striations are characteristics of
this muscle type. These cells are
multinucleated.

o Location: muscles associated with

the skeleton
o Function: voluntary movement

 Muscle fiber is cylindrical but longer

 There is no branch
 Arranged in parallel
 Several nuclei in periperium.
 Basic structural and functional unit of the muscle tissue
o Dark A Band- Anisotropic band
Smooth Muscle (Visceral Muscle) o Light I Band- isotropic band
 They are responsible for striated
 Smooth muscle cells are spindle shaped
and uninucleate (center of the cell) Sarcomeres
o Locations: walls of hollow organs,
i.e. stomach, intestine, uterus,
ureter
o Functions: involuntary movement

 Only muscle tissue type that is non-striated.

 Small contractile unit; occupy the region where the Z-discs is

found.
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 o Z-disc- Zwischenscheibe disc (between)
o H-Zone- Heller Zone
Myofilaments: Banding Pattern
 Myofilaments is a threadlike structures
Ultrastructure of Myofilaments: Thick Filaments
Ultrastructure of Myofilaments: Thick Filaments
 Thick filaments are composed of the protein myosin
 Each myosin molecule has a rod like tail and two globular heads
o Tails – two interwoven, heavy polypeptide chains
o Heads – two smaller, light polypeptide chains called
cross bridges
Ultrastructure of Myofilaments: Thin Filaments
 single tail and two heads
 Six polypeptide chains
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Ultrastructure of Myofilaments: Thin Filaments
 Thin filaments are chiefly composed of the protein actin
 Tropomyosin and troponin are regulatory subunits bound to
actin
o Myosin is 60%
o Actin is 15%
o Troponin and Tropomyosin are the regulatory protein
Arrangement of the Filaments in a Sarcomere
 light and clear
 There wouldn’t be interaction or overlapping
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)
TRIAD- 1 tubule and pair of terminal
o Counterpart of dyad (1 pair and 1 tube)
Tubules of Sarcoplasmic- capture and stores iron
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)
 SR smooth endoplasmic reticulum that mostly runs
longitudinally and surrounds each myofibril
 Paired terminal cisternae form perpendicular cross channels
 Functions in the regulation of intracellular calcium levels
T-Tubules
 T tubules are continuous with the sarcolemma
 They conduct impulses to the deepest regions of the muscle
 These impulses signal for the release of Ca2+from adjacent
terminal cisternae
 Muscle Cell Contraction  Tension increases to the muscle’s capacity, but the muscle
neither shortens nor lengthens
Sliding Filament Theory  Occurs if the load is greater than the tension the muscle is able
to develop
 When muscle contracts, the thin filament and thick filament
will pass to each other. Muscle Metabolism: Energy for Contraction

Excitation of a Muscle Fiber  ATP is the only source used directly for contractile activity
 As soon as available stores of ATP (36) are hydrolyzed (4-6
seconds), they are regenerated by:
o The interaction of ADP (1) with creatine phosphate (CP)
o Anaerobic glycolysis
o Aerobic respiration

Muscle Fiber Type: Functional Characteristics

 Speed of contraction – determined by speed in which ATPases

split ATP
o The two types of fibers are slow and fast

 ATP-forming pathways
o Oxidative fibers – use aerobic pathways
o Glycolytic fibers – use anaerobic glycolysis

 These two criteria define three categories – slow oxidative fibers,

fast oxidative fibers, and fast glycolytic fibers

Muscle Fiber Type: Speed of Contraction

 Slow oxidative fibers contract slowly, have slow acting myosin

Contraction  Myosin ATPase in myosin head ATPases, and are fatigue resistant (slow twitch/red muscle fibers)
(Steps 10 & 11) hydrolyzes an ATP molecule,
activating the head and “cocking” it  Fast oxidative fibers contract quickly, have fast myosin
 Step 10: Activation in an extended position ATPases, and have moderate resistance to fatigue (fast twitch or
and cocking of white muscle fiber)
myosin bond  It binds to an active site on actin
 Step 11: formation of  Myosis- co-factor of ATP  Fast glycolytic fibers contract quickly, have fast myosin
myosin-actin cross- ATPases, and are easily fatigued (intermediate fiber)
bridge
Relaxation  Step 17: Loss of calcium ions from Smooth Muscle
(Steps 17 & 18) troponin
 Step 18: Return of Tropomyosin to
 Composed of spindle-shaped fibers with a diameter of 2-10 μm
position blocking active sites of
and lengths of several hundred μm
actin
 Lack the coarse connective tissue sheaths of skeletal muscle, but
have fine endomysium
Isotonic Contractions  Organized into two layers (longitudinal and circular) of closely
apposed fibers
 In isotonic contractions, the muscle changes in length  Found in walls of hollow organs (except the heart)
(decreasing the angle of the joint) and moves the load  Have essentially the same contractile mechanisms as skeletal
 The two types of isotonic contractions are concentric and eccentric muscle

o Concentric contractions – the muscle shortens and Microscopic Anatomy of Smooth Muscle
does work (most common happen)
o Eccentric contractions – the muscle contracts as it
 SR is less developed than in skeletal muscle and lacks a specific
lengthens (found at the back muscle and neck muscle)
pattern
 T tubules are absent
Isotonic Contractions
 Plasma membranes have pouch like infoldings called caveoli
 Ca2+is sequestered in the extracellular space near the caveoli,
allowing rapid influx when channels are opened
 There are no visible striations and no sarcomeres
 Thin and thick filaments are present
o Skeletal (6:1)
o Smooth (15:1)
o Cardiac (10:1)

Proportion and Organization of Myofilaments in Smooth Muscle

 Ratio of thin to thick filaments is higher than in skeletal muscle

 Thick filaments have heads along their entire length
 There is no troponin complex
 Thick and thin filaments are arranged diagonally, causing
smooth muscle to contract in a corkscrew manner
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 Noncontractile intermediate filament bundles attach to dense
bodies (analogous to Z discs) at regular intervals

Contraction of Smooth Muscle

 Whole sheets of smooth muscle exhibit slow, synchronized

contraction
 They contract in unison, reflecting their electrical coupling with
gap junctions
 Action potentials are transmitted from cell to cell

Some smooth muscle cells:

o Act as pacemakers (interstitial of cajal)- furkinji fibers and set
the contractile pace for whole sheets of muscle
o Are self-excitatory and depolarize without external stimuli

Types of Smooth Muscle: Single Unit

 The cells of single-unit smooth muscle, commonly called visceral

muscle:
o Contract rhythmically as a unit
o Are electrically coupled to one another via gap junctions
o Often exhibit spontaneous action potentials
o Are arranged in opposing sheets and exhibit stress-
relaxation response

Types of Smooth Muscle: Multiunit

 Multiunit smooth muscles are found:

o In large airways to the lungs
o In large arteries
o In arrector pili muscles
o Attached to hair follicles
o In the internal eye muscles

 Their characteristics include:

o Rare gap junctions
o Infrequent spontaneous depolarizations
o Structurally independent muscle fibers
o A rich nerve supply, which, with a number of muscle
fibers, forms motor units
o Graded contractions in response to neural stimuli

Special Features of Smooth Muscle Contraction

 Unique characteristics of smooth muscle include:

o Smooth muscle tone
o Slow, prolonged contractile activity
o Low energy requirements

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