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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERNG
BY
STEPHEN S. MWANJE
1
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FIELD AND CIRCUIT THEORY.........................3
1.1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................3
1.2. CIRCUIT LAWS OBTAINED USING FIELD QUANTITIES..........................................3
1.3. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS AS GENERALISATIONS OF CIRCUIT EQUATIONS...........5
1.4. BREAK DOWN OF SIMPLE CIRCUIT THEORY IN PROBLEM ANALYSIS..................8
CHAPTER TWO: UNBOUNDED WAVE PROPAGATION............................................9
3.1. INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................26
3.2. TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS (DISTRIBUTED CIRCUIT ANALYSIS)...............26
3.3. STANDING WAVES ON TRANSMISSION LINES..................................................32
3.4. TRANSMISSION LINES MATCHING CONSIDERATIONS.......................................35
3.5. GRAPHICAL AIDS TO TRANSMISSION LINE CALCULATIONS..............................41
CHAPTER 4: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION IN WAVEGIDES...................49
6.1. PLASMAS........................................................................................................72
6.2. MICROSTRIP TRANSMISSION LINES.................................................................73
6.3. PROPAGATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS.................................................................................75
REFERENCES:............................................................................................78
APPENDICES..............................................................................................79
APPENDIX A: GRAPHICAL SOLUTION TO DOUBLE STUB MATCHING............................79
APPENDIX A: GRAPHICAL SOLUTION TO DOUBLE STUB MATCHING
2
CHAPTER 1: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FIELD AND CIRCUIT
THEORY
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Conventional circuit theory, where we deal with Voltage, V and Current, I, and
field theory, where we use the field vectors E, D, B, H, and J are inter-related.
Consideration of circuits from either point of view gives the same results.
However, there are certain inherent assumptions in the circuit theory approach,
which become invalid as circuit dimensions and the impressed signal wavelength
become comparable. This necessitates either the use of field theory, which is the
more general approach or a modification of the circuit theory approach.
In this chapter, we shall see how the two are related, and why circuit theory has
limitations. It will be shown that the normal expressions can be obtained using
field theory, and that Maxwell’s equations, the “four commandments” of
electromagnetic field propagation, can be obtained as generalizations of circuit
expressions.
J,
A
q
p
3
Consider the conducting rod in figure 1.1 with parameters as shown
1.1
q q
J Jl l
∫ Εgdl = ∫σ gdl
p p
=
σ
=J Α
σΑ
Note that we have assumed a uniform rod with a uniform current density, J.
Since: (potential difference between p and q)
q
∫ Εgdl
p
=V
4
Figure 1.2 shows a simple series R-L-C circuit
1.3
∂ dφ d dI
− ∫Β gds = − =− (LI =) − L
∂t dt dt dt
• The integral from 0 to 1 - V01, is the applied voltage. Note that V01=-V10;
• The integral from 2 to 3; 1.4
3 3
J
∫ Ε gdl
2
=
σ∫
2
gdl =IR
∫ Ε gdl
Voltage drop across the resistor is not the same as that across the
5
capacitor. Across resistor, energy is actually lost. Across the capacitor,
energy is stored as 1.5
5 5
D Q
∫ Ε gdl = ∫ε
4 4
gdl =
C
Note: D= Q/A, and the integral gives the capacitor plate spacing d
multiplied by Q/A. we then use C =
Αε / d
1.6
t 5 t
1
Q= ∫
−∞
Idt, ∴ ∫ Ε
4
g dl =
c ∫ Idt
−∞
1.7
t
dI 1
V10 = IR + L + ∫ Idt
dt C −∞
Equation 1.7 is the familiar expression for the series R-L-C circuit, but this time
derived from field theory. Several assumptions were used:
(A) A filamentary conductor defines the closed path or circuit. This conductor
has zero tangential electric field (E) everywhere. For perfect conductor,
and . No voltage drop along conductor.
Εtan = 0 ∫ Εgdl =0
6
1.1. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS AS GENERALISATIONS OF CIRCUIT
EQUATIONS
∫ Ηgdl=
Ñ I
1.8
Note: A Capacitor stores energy predominantly in the electric field while an
Inductor stores energy predominantly in the magnetic field.
Stokes theorem coverts the line integral in equation 1.8 around a closed path to
an integral over the surface enclosed by the path. Consequently, a more general
relation is obtained by substituting for I using the conduction current density, J.
An even more general expression is obtained by including the displacement
current density, to give:
∂D ∂t
1.9
∂D ∂D
∫ Η gdl
Ñ = ∫J gds +
s s
∫∂t gds =∫ J + gds
s
dt
This is the loop or mesh form of one of Maxwell’s equations derived from
Ampere’s law. Using Stoke’s theorem, LHS of the integral in equation 1.9 can be
converted to an open surface integral. We thus get the point form of the equation:
1.10
∂D
∇ΧΗ = J +
∂t
7
Since voltage is the integral around the circuit of and is the integral of
Εgdl , Φ
over the surface enclosed by the circuit, the more general form of equation
Βgds
1.11 is:
1.12
∂Β
∫ Ε gdl
Ñ = − ∫ gds
s
∂t
The surface may be changing so the time derivative should be inside the integral
sign. This is another one of Maxwell’s equations. The point relation is obtained by
applying Stokes theorem to get:
1.13
∂Β
∇ΧΕ = −
∂t
∫ Dgds = Q
Ñ
Generally, total charge is the integral, over the volume of interest, of the charge
density, p. Equation 1.14 becomes:
1.15
∫ Dgds = ∫ρ gdv
Ñ
The relation is obtained by applying the divergence theorem (which converts an
integral over a closed surface to a volume integral within the volume enclosed) to
the LHS of equation 1.15 to give:
1.16
∇gD = ρ
∫ Βgds = 0
Ñ
The magnetic field does not have source points. Thus, there is no such things as
a magnetic charge, implying that magnetic charge = 0 as in equation 1.7.
Applying the divergence theorem gives
8
1.18
∇gΒ = 0
In free space, and for most practical purposes in air, the conduction current
density and the charge density are zero, permitting simplification of Maxwell’s
equation:
∇ΧΗ= &
D
∇ΧΕ=−Β &
∇gD= 0
∇Β
g= 0
9
time is equivalent to multiplying by - . For harmonic time variations, Maxwell’s
2
w
equations therefore are:
∇ gD = ρ , ∇gε Ε = ρ , ∇gΕ = ρ ε →
Field is a charge. Charge enclosed by the surface determines the flux out
of the surface.
IV. Magnetic field has no source points
∇gΒ = 0→
Note that the constitutive relations and have been
D = εΕ, Β = µΗ ; J = σΕ
used, and that a homogeneous isotropic medium has been assumed.
Component
Half a Wavelength
wavelength
A
B
10
At higher frequencies, wavelength approaches circuit dimensions so that the
assumptions of constant electric field and current are no longer valid (Figure.
1.3B). These vary from point to point in circuit element at any instant in time.
When simple circuit theory breaks down, it is necessary to use distributed circuit
analysis. Circuit quantities (V and I) are permitted to change incrementally along
the circuit. Defining relationships are in the form of differential equations. The
physical circuit is then described in the form of equivalent impedance, to which
simple circuit theory can be applied. This approach will be used when analyzing
transmission lines.
1.1.2. 1.1. Starting with Maxwell’s equations derive the continuity equation
∂ 2Α
= − w2Α
∂t 2
11
CHAPTER TWO: UNBOUNDED WAVE PROPAGATION
2.
12
Consider, e.g., at times and (Figure 2.1). At any fixed time (e.g.
f1 ( Χ−V0t ) t1 t2
t=t1,t=t2 etc) the function only depends on X. Evidently the phenomenon travels in
the positive x direction with a velocity . Similarly, represents a
V0 f 2 ( X +ν0t )
phenomenon traveling in the negative x direction.
I
∇ΧΗ= ( σ+ jwεΕ)
II
∇ΧΕ = − JW µ Η
III
∇ gD = ρ
IV
∇gΒ = 0
We differentiate I w.r.t time and since the curl operation is w.r.t space we can
reverse the order of differentiation:
LHS:
∂
( ∇×Η ) = ∇×Η&
∂t
13
RHS:
∂t
( )
∂ & ∂ & &
D = εΕ = εΕ&
∂t
i.e. 2.1
& = ε∂ Ε
2
∇ × Η =ε Ε 2
∂t
Taking the curl of LHS and RHS of II, and use for time invariant :
& µΗ&
Β=
µ
2.2
µ
∇×∇×Ε=− ∇×Η &
Use identity:
∇×∇× Α = ∇∇ g
Α −∇ Α
2
i.e. 2.4
∇∇ g
Ε−∇ Ε=−
2
µε &
Ε &
Therefore: 2.5
∇2Ε= µεΕ&
&
Similarly, 2.6
Η&
Η= µε
∇2 g &
Equation 2.5 and 2.6 are the wave equations in a perfect dielectric and must be
satisfied by and for electromagnetic wave propagation. For free space,
Ε Η
and and, assuming harmonic time dependence, we get Helmholtz
µ = µ0 ε = ε0
14
2.7
∇ Ε+k E = 0
2 2
Where, 2.8
Κ = w µε
2 2
And 2.9
w 2π f 2π
κ = w µε = = =
v v λ
∂ 2Ε ∂ 2Ε
= µε
∂× 2 ∂ t2
2.10
2.11
∂Η
2
∂Η 2
= µε 2
∂x 2
∂t
direction. Taking say the y component (the z component behaves similarly) gives
equation 2.10 as:
2.12
∂ Εy
2
∂ Εy2
= µε
∂x 2
∂t 2
This partial differential equation has a general solution of the form (HW 1.3):
2.13
( V 0t +) f ×+
Ε y = fI ×− 2 ( v 0t )
With reference to the definition given earlier, it is evident that equation 2.13
describes wave motion.
15
Definition:
zH
x
E
Direction of
motion
16
Figure 2.2: UPW propagating in positive x –direction
2.14 (a)
∂ 2Ε x ∂ 2Ε x
= µε
∂x 2 ∂t2
2.14(b)
∂ 2Ε y ∂ 2Ε y
= µε
∂x 2 ∂t 2
2.14(c)
∂ E2
∂ E 2
= µε 2 Z
∂x 2
∂t
2.15
∂Ε x ∂E y ∂Ez
+ + = 0
∂x ∂y ∂ z
The last two terms on the LHS are zero because E is independent of y and z.
Therefore even the first component must be zero. This means that either is
ΕΧ
constant or equal to zero. However, a constant cannot be part of wave motion,
therefore . A similar argument for the magnetic field shows that .
ΕΧ = 0 ΗΧ = 0
We can therefore conclude that uniform plane waves are transverse.
17
2.16(a)
∂Ε z ∂Ε y
∇ΧΕ = − a+y az
∂x ∂x
2.16(b)
∂Η z ∂Η y
∇ΧΗ = − a y+ az
∂x ∂x
2.17(b)
∂Ε z ∂Ε y ∂Η y ∂Η z
− ay + a z = −µ ay + az
∂x ∂x ∂t ∂t
2.18(b)
∂Η y ∂Ε z
=ε
∂x ∂t
2.19(a)
∂Ε z ∂Η y
= −µ
∂x ∂t
2.19(b)
∂Ε y ∂Η z
= −µ
∂x ∂t
; where
∂Ε y ∂f1 ∂ ( x − v0 t ) ∂f1
= g = v−0 f1 ( x v−0 t) f1 =
∂ ( x − v 0t )
∂t ∂( x − v0 t) ∂t
18
Using 2.18(a), ; But
∂Η z ε ∂f1 ∂ ( x − v 0t )
= v0ε f1, ⇒ Ηz = ∫ f1 dx = f1 = f1
∂x µ ∂x ∂x
So
ε ∂f1 ε
Ηz = ∫
µ ∂x
∂x +c = f1
µ
c+
We can ignore the constant C since it is not part of wave motion, giving:
2.20(a)
ε E µ
Ηz = E y; ∴ y =
µ Ηz ε
Similarly, 2.20(b)
Εz µ
=−
Ηy ε
Since,
Ε = Ε2y + Ε2z ; Η = Η2z + Η2y
2.21
Ε µ
=
Η ε
∇×Η= ( σ+ jwε ) E
19
We see that the term on the RHS has two components: conduction current
( σΕ)
and a displacement current . While the conduction current is independent
( jwεΕ)
of frequency, the displacement current increases with frequency. This means that
as frequency increases, a material can change from a conductor to a dielectric. It
therefore makes sense to classify materials depending on the relative
magnitudes of conduction and displacement currents:
Dielectrics
wε > σ σ 1
<
wε 100
Quasi conductors
wε ≈ σ 1 σ
< < 100
100 wε
Conductors
wε < σ σ
100 <
wε
Maxwell’s equations for a conductive medium will retain both the conduction and
displace current components, but there will be no stored charge. As before, we
differentiate I with respect to time; take the curl of II, and carry out the necessary
substitutions to get the wave equation for the electric field E. A similar derivation
can be used to get the wave equation for the magnetic field H (see equation
2.22)
2.22(a)
&
& µσΕ &
∇2Ε= µεΕ+
2.22(b)
&
& µσΗ &
∇ Η= µεΗ+
2
20
2.23(a)
∇ 2 Ε + ( w 2µε − jw µσ ) Ε =0
2.23(b)
∇ Η + ( w µε − jw µσ ) Η =0
2 2
Rearranging
2.24(a)
∇2Ε − γ 2Ε = 0
2.24(b)
∇ Η−γ Η = 0
2 2
where, 2.25
γ = jwµ σ( + jw
2
ε )
is a complex number known as the propagation constant. For a UPW
γ = a + jβ
propagating in the x direction, 2.24 gives:
2.26
∂ E
2
= γ 2Ε
∂x 2
Ε ( x ) = Ε0 eγ x
ξ ( x, t ) = Re Ε0 e−γ x + jwt
2.27
= e αΧ Re Ε0 e j ( wt − βΧ)
Using 2.25 and considering only positive square roots, it can be shown that:
21
and 2.28
µε σ2 µε σ2
α=w 1 + −1 β =w 1+ 2 2+ 1
2 wε
2 2 2 wε
so that v=
2π w
β= λf =
λ β
A good dielectric will always have some losses (as opposed to a perfect
dielectric). However since it can then be shown that (HW 2.3):
,
( σ / wε ) =1
2.29(a)
σ µ
a≈
2 ε
2.29(b)
σ 2
β ≈ w µε 1 + 2 2
8w ε
can be seen that the effect of small losses is a reduction in the velocity of
propagation of the wave.
Good conductor
For a good conductor, This gives:
( σ / wε ) ? 1
22
2.31
γ= jwµ (σ + jwε ) ≈ jwµσ w= wµσ < 45°
2.32
wµσ
a=
2
2.33
wµσ
β=
2
w 2w
v= =
β µσ
2.34
From 2.32 and 2.33, it is evident that and will be very large for a good
α β
conductor, especially at high frequencies. This has several consequences:
Or
1
Εδ s = Ε s e − aδ s= Ε s= e Ε−1 e − aδ s = e −1
s
e
=> 2.36
1 2
δs = =
α w µσ
23
Example: Copper with
, the depth at
σ = 5.8× 10 7 mhos / m;µ = µ 0= 4π × 10 −7
Surface Impedance:
From the above example, we see that current is confined to a very thin sheet on
the surface of a good conductor at high frequencies. It is convenient to define
surface impedance,
2.37
Εtan
Ζs =
Js
Where, is the tangential electric field at the surface and is the resulting
Ε tan Js
linear surface current density (total conduction current per meter width of the
surface).
Consider a thick flat plate with a current distribution as shown in figure 2.3:
2.38
−ϒy
J = J 0e
Thick conductor
ty
Thickness
24
2.39
t ∞ ∞
J0
∴ J = ∫ Jdy =∫ Jdy = J 0 ∫ e− ϒy dy =
0 0 0
γ
Since, , then
σΕ tan Εtan γ
J 0 = σΕ tan , J s = Zs = =
γ Js σ
jwµ wµ
∴Zs = = (+1 j =) ( ηm )
σ 2σ
2.40
1+ j
=
σδ s
Surface resistance 2.41
1 wµ
Rs = =
σδ s 2σ
And Surface reactance 2.42
1
Xs =
σδ s
We see therefore that a conductor having a thickness >>δs with exponential
current distribution has the same resistance as a conductor of thickness δs with
the total current as before uniformly distributed throughout its thickness.
25
seff
With J as the effective value of the linear current density
Consider I:
∇xH = J + D&= J + εΕ&
2.44
J = ∇xH − εΕ&
2.45(a)
ΕgJ = Εg∇xΗ − εΕgΕ&
Or
∇gΕxΗ = Η g∇ xΕ − Ε g∇ xΗ Εg∇xΗ = Η g∇ xΕ − ∇ gΕ xΗ
From II,
&− Η
∇×Ε=−Β= µ
And Substituting:
ΕgJ = − µ g &Ε
Η Η− g & ΕgΗx
ε Ε−∇
2 ∂t 2 ∂t
2.45(b)
µ ∂ 2 ε ∂ 2
ΕgJ = − Η − Ε −∇ Ε
gΗx
2 ∂t 2 ∂t
2.45(c)
∂ µ 2 ε 2
∫ E gJdv = − Η + Ε dv (− ∫ ∇g xΕ)
∂t v∫2
Ηdv
v
2 v
∫ ∇gΕxΗdv = Ñ
v
∫ ΕxΗgds ,
2.46
∂ µ ε
∫ Ε gJdv = − ∫ Η + Ε dv Ñ− ∫xΕ gΗds
2 2
v
∂t v 2 2 s
dissipated in a volume v.
2. is Stored electric energy/unit volume and is Stored magnetic
1 2 1
εΕ µΗ 2
2 2
energy/unit volume. Therefore, the volume integral (2) represents total
stored energy. The negative time derivative represents the rate of decrease
of stored energy.
3. From the law of conservation of energy, the rate of dissipation of energy (1)
must equal the rate at which stored energy is decreasing plus the rate at
which energy enters the volume V, i.e., (3) must represent the of flow of
energy inwards through the surface of V.
is the rate of energy flow outwards from the volume V.
∫ ΕxΗ gds
Ñ
s
∫ ΕΧΗ gds
−Ñ
s
Poynting’s theorem:
27
and called, Poynting’s vector, at any point is a measure of the rate of
P = ΕxΗ
flow of energy per unit area at that point. The direction of flow (direction of
Poynting’s vector) is perpendicular to both . Note that is normal to
Ε& Η Ρ Ε& Η
1
Ρ=
2
( εΕ 2+ µΗ 2
)v
0
1 µ ε
= ε ΕΗ + µ ΕΗ v0
2 ε µ
ΕΗ °
= = Ε × Η = ΕΗsin 90
v0
are related by
Ε tan &Η tan
2.47
Ε tan = Ζ sΗ tan
28
Where (see equation. 2.40)
wµ
Ζs = ∠ 45°
σ
Since are no longer in time phase we use the complex Poynting’s vector.
Ε& Η
2.48
1
Ρ = Ε xΗ •
2
2.49
1
= Ε tan xΗ tan
g
Then 2.50
1
Ρ av = Re (Ε tan xΗ •
tan )
2
2.52
1 1 Ε 2 tan
= Ζ Η
2
s tan =
2
2 2
2 Ζs
∴ 1
Ρav = 2
Ζ s Js2watts / m 2
2
29
2.53
= Rs J s
2
(eff )
i.e., Poynting’s vector can be used to account for power loss in the conductor.
Since the transmitted field is zero, continuity of tangential E field across the
boundary requires that:
or 2.55
Εr + Ε i = 0, Ε r = −Ε i
At any point –x from the x=0 plane, the total field is:
ΕT
30
ΕT ( x )=Ε i e − j β+Ε
x
re
+ β
j x
= Εi ( e − j βχ −e + j βχ)
= −2 jΕi sin βχ
2.56
= 2Εi sin β x sin wt
Equation 2.56 represents a standing wave of maximum amplitude, which
2Ε i
varies sinusoidally with distance from the reflecting plane (figure 2.4)
ΗT ( X ) = Η i e − j β x+ Η r e jβ x
= 2Η i cos β x
Η T ( x, t ) = Re ( ΗT e jwt )
2.57
= 2Η i cos β x cos wt
Which is also a standing wave. The surface current density
J s = ΗT Am −1
31
Meanwhile, whereas are in time phase, and out of phase,
Εi &Η i ΗT &Ε T π
2
so that there is no average flow of power.
ε1 , µ1,η1 ε 2 , µ 2 ,η 2
Ε i , Ηi ε 2 , µ2 , η2
Ε r , Ηr Ε t , Ηt
2.58
Ε r η 2 − η1 ε1 − ε 2
= =
Εi η2 + η1 ε1 + ε 2
2.58
Ε r η 2 − η1 ε1 − ε 2
= =
Εi η2 + η1 ε1 + ε 2
2.59
2 ε
Εt 2η2
= 1
Εi η2 + η1 ε1 + ε 2
32
2.60
Ηt Ε
=− r
Ηi Εi
2.61
Ηt η1 Ε t
=
Η i η2 Ε i
Equations 2.58- 2.61 define the reflection and transmission coefficients for the
electric and magnetic fields.
Amplitudeofreflectedwave
Re flection Coefficient =
Amplitudeofincidentwave
Amplitudeoftransmittedwave
TransmissionCoefficient =
Amplitudeofincidentwave
{
Ε yi = Re Εi e j ( wt − β x ) }
Ε yr = Re { Ε e ( r
j wt + β x +δ )
}
phase difference between at X = 0, which we shall ignore here for
δ→ Ε yr &Ε yi
ΕTY = Ε yi+Ε yr
{
= Re Εi e j ( wt − β x ) + Εr e j( wt + βx ) }
33
2.63
=Ε i cos ( wt− βx+Ε
) r (+ β x
cos wt )
=Ε i cos wt cos β+
x sin wt sin β+Ε
x r ( wt cosβ− x sin
cos β x )
2.64
ΕTY = {( Ε +Ε )
i r
2 2
}
cos2 β x + ( Εi − Εr ) sin2 β x sin ( wt − β x)
The maximum value at each point, or the shape of the standing wave envelope is
obtained when and is given by :
sin ( wt − βX )= 1
2.65
ΕTY = {(Ε +Ε )
i r
2
cos 2 β x + ( Εi − Εr )
2
sin2 β x }
Note the oscillation of stored energy in both time and space over
respectively.
π π
βx = & wt =
2 2
34
Max value:
Ei + Er
Min Value:
Ei −Er
The standing wave ratio is defined as the ratio of the maximum value to the
minimum value of the envelope (normally called VSWR or S).
2.66
ET (max) Ei + Er
VSWR = =
ET (min) Ei − Er
1.3. POLARISATION
Knowledge of the polarization of the received signal enables one to align or to set
up a suitable antenna system for reception.
(i) General case:
Assume propagation in the Z direction, i.e.,
Ε( z ) = Ε 0 e − j β z
2.27
Ε ( z , t ) = Re { Εο e− j β z e jwt }
lies in the X- Y plane .
ε ( z, t )
Assume a case where are present, with different amplitude, with
Εy &Ε x Εy
leading by , i.e.
Εx π
2
2.75
Ε=Ε x+ Εj y
35
2.76
{
ε ( 0, t ) = Re ( Εx + j Εy ) ejwt }
=Ε x cos wt−Ε sin wt
= Ε
axˆ x cos −
wt ayˆEy sin wt
i.e., &
Ε x = Ε x cos wt Ε y = Ε y sin wt
So that 2.77
2
Εx Εy
+ =1
Ε 2
x Ε2y
Evidently the end point of traces out an ellipse and the wave is said to
Ε( 0, t )
The ellipticity is defined as the minor to major axis ratio (normally given in dB).
(ii) Linear Polarisation
Let be in phase,
Εy &Ε x
2.78
= ( Εx + Ε y ) cos wt
The resultant direction, which depends only on the relative magnitudes of the two
fields, is fixed, making an angle arctan with the X- axis. The wave is
(Ε y Εx )
36
Let have the same amplitude with leading by . Then
Εy &Ε x Εa Εy Εx π
2
2.77 gives:
2 2
Ε x + Εy = Ε2a
2.79
i.e., traces out a circle and the wave is said to be circularly polarized (Fig
Ε( 0, t )
Assignment Two:
µε σ2
α= w 1+ 2 2 −1
2 wε
and 2.28(b)
µε σ2
β =w 1+ 2 2+ 1
2 wε
2.3. Show that for a dielectric, the attenuation, phase constants and wave
velocity are respectively given as
2.29(a)
σ µ
a≈
2 ε
2.29(b)
σ2
β ≈ w µε 1 + 2 2
8w ε
37
2.30
−1
w 1 σ2 σ2
v= = 1 + 2 2
≈ v0 1 − 2 2
β µε 8w ε 8w ε
2.4. Let
Α = ( Εi + Εr ) cos β x & Β =( Εi − Εr) sin βx ,
ΕTY = {( Ε +Ε )
i r
2 2
}
cos2 β x + ( Εi − Εr ) sin2 β x sin ( wt − β x)
38
CHAPTER 3: WAVE PROPAGATION IN TRANSMISSION LINES
1.
1.1. INTRODUCTION
We shall study these guiding systems in their normal mode of operation and
derive the important relationships and parameters pertaining to them, starting
with Transmission lines in this chapter.
Vdz
Conducto
IHomogeno
z
rs
us
Isotropic
medium
39
1.1.1. The Infinite Transmission line
1. The above parameters are uniformly distributed over the whole length of
the line.
2. L and C account for the energy storage in the magnetic and electric fields
respectively, while R and G account for conductor loss and dielectric loss
respectively.
Rdz
ILdz
V
Gdz
Cdz
40
Then the differential length δz be represented by the equivalent lumped element
circuit shown in fig. 3.4
Fig. 3.4: Equivalent lumped parameter circuit of the differential length, dz.
The input current and voltage are i(z,t) and v(z,t) respectively so that the outputs
are and
∂i ∂v
i+ ∂z v+ ∂z .
∂z ∂z
∂v ∂i
v − v + dz = iRdz + Ldz
∂z ∂t
3.1(a)
∂v ∂i
= iR − L
∂z ∂t
Similarly, 3.1(b)
∂i ∂v
= − vG − C
∂z ∂t
3.2(b)
∂i 2
∂v ∂ v 2
= −G − C 2
∂t∂z ∂t ∂t
41
Assignment: Obtain a similar equation for the current I:
3.3(b)
∂i2
∂i ∂ i 2
− ( RC + LG ) − LC 2− RGi= 0
∂z 2
∂t ∂t
and 3.4(b)
∂I
= − ( G+ jwC ) v= − YV
∂z
∂ 2V
− ( RG − w 2LC )V− jw (RC+ LG )V= 0
∂z 2
or 3.5(a)
∂V
2
− ZYV = 0
∂z 2
Similarly, 3.5(b)
∂ I
2
− ZYI = 0
∂z 2
Equations 3.5 are the basic differential equations, or wave equations for the
second order with constant coefficients. Let , where is some constant,
ZY = γ 2 γ
3.6
V = V + e−γ z + V − eγ z
42
Note that , from our earlier consideration, denotes a wave traveling in the
+ −γ z
V e
positive Z- direction, while denotes a wave traveling in the negative Z-
V −e γ z
direction, i.e. both waves are present on the transmission line. In the general
case, is given by:
γ
3.7
γ = ZY = ( R + jwL ) ( G + jwC )
1 ∂V 1 ∂ + −γ z
I=−
R + jwL ∂z
=− ( Ve
R + jwL ∂z
V+− γze)
1
=−
( R + jwL )
( −γ V + e−γ z + γ V − eγ z )
γ + −γ z
( V e −V e )
− γz
=
R + jwL
3.8
−γ z − γz
V +e V e
= − = I + e−γ z −I − eγ z
zc zc
where 3.9
R + jwL R + jwL
Zc = =
γ G + jwC
is called the characteristic impedance of the line. It is evident that,
V+ V−
Zc = = −
I+ I−
Zc
43
is the impedance seen looking into a uniform infinite transmission line at any
Zc
point (figure 3.5).
Lossless line (R = G = 0)
For a lossless line, 3.10
γ = jw LC = jβ
i.e., and
β = ω LC α =0
so that 3.11
Zc = L
C
3.12
1 R G
γ == α + jβ = ( R+ jwL ) ( G+ jwC )≈ jw LC+ LC +
2 L C
and
1 R G 1
α= LC + = ( RY c + GZ c )
2 L C 2
44
For an infinite line, we expect that we have only the incident waves, with
+ +
V &I
identically zero. For termination with some impedance different
V −andI − ZR
Length,
IDirection
Z
V s,R
R
z=0
lz
R
45
Let a section of line length I, characteristic impedance, , and propagation
Zc
and at
V = Vs I = Is z = z1
So
VR = Α1 cosh 0+ Β 1 sinh 0 ⇒ Α1 = VR
46
∂V
= γΑ1 sinhγ z+ γΒ 1 coshγ z= − (R+ jwL )I
∂Z
At Z = 0,
γΑ1 sinh 0+γΒ 1 cos0= − +( R jwL )I R
Or
Β1 = −
( R + jwL ) I= − Zc I R
γ
R
We similarly obtain
Α2 = I R
and
VR
Β2 = −
Zc
Vs = VR cosh γ z1 − Z c I R sinh γ z1
VR
I s = I R cosh γ z1 − sinh γ Z1
Zc
3.14(a)
Vs = VR cosh γl + Z c I R sinhγ l
3.14(b)
VR
I s = I R cosh γ l + sinh γ l
Zc
Equations 3.14 relate the voltage and currents at the two ends of the
transmission line. The input impedance of the line is given by
3.15
Vs V cosh γl +Z cI R sinhγl
Z in = = R
( R /Z c )sinhγ l
I s I R cos γl + V
Z R cosh γ l + Zc sinh γ l
Z in =
cosh γ l + ( Z R Zc ) sinh γ l
47
where we have set
Z R = VR / I R .
Z in = Zc coth γ l = Zoc
3.17
iii. Line terminated in its characteristic impedance
( Z R = Zc )
3.18
Z in = Z c
Note that:
a)
Z sc Z oc = Zc2
48
in in comparison to at these high frequencies. Equations
αl γ l = αl + jβ l βl
3.14 and 3.15 can therefore be written in their lossless form:
3.19 (a)
Vs = VR cos β l + jI R Z c sin β l
3.19(b)
( R Z C sin
I s = I R cos βl+ j V ) βl
cos β l + j ( Zc / Z R ) sin β l
Z s = Z R
cos β l + j ( Z R Z c ) sin β l
3.20
Z cos β l + jZc sin β l
= Zc R
Z c cos β l + jZR sin β l
The voltage and current distributions at any point Z from the termination are
obtained by replacing I by Z in equations 3.19. We shall consider the case where
is real. The case where complex can be inferred from these results. We
ZR ZR
have equations 3.21, which are familiar standing wave envelopes.
3.21 (a)
Vz = VR cos2 β Ζ +( Rc R) sin2 β ]Ζ
2
3.21 (b)
I z = I R cos 2 β z + ( R Rc ) sin 2 β z
2
Z R = R, Z c = L C = Rc
49
measured. These are simply the ratios of the maximum (Vmax, Imax) to the
minimum (Vmin, Imin) amplitudes.
Case 1: R<Rc
and
Rc Vmin = VR
Vmax =V R
R
3.22
Vmax I max
∴ =
Vmin I min
Case 2: R>Rc
It can be similarly shown that for this case
3.23
Vmax I max R
= =
Vmin I min R c
case R
≠ Rc
50
Fig 3.7: standing wave patterns on a lossless line for various terminations.
Note that the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR), S, is a measurable quantity. If
we know - readily calculated from line dimensions, we can measure S and
Rc
determine the value of terminating resistance, R, using 3.22 or 3.23. the
ambiguity is cleared by determining if it is voltage or current which is a maximum
at the termination:
I+ I+ I + I−
c
I+ + I−
Z R I + − I − 1 − I − / I + 1 +ρ
= = =
Z c I + + I − 1 + I − / I + 1 −ρ
51
and 3.24
ZR − Zc
ρ=
ZR + Zc
Since
V + +V − 1+ V− V+
S= + =
V −V − 1− V− /V+
it follows that 3.25
1+ ρ
S=
1− ρ
and, conversely, 3.26
S −1
ρ =
S +1
Also, the input impedance at any point is given by:
Zin
V V+ + V− (Ι −Ι )
Z in = = + − = Zc + −
+ −
Ι Ι +Ι Ι +Ι
3.27(a)
Z in 1 − Ι− Ι+ 1 + ρ
= Z in = =
Zc 1 + Ι− Ι+ 1 − ρ
3.27(b)
1 1− ρ
= Yin =
Z in 1+ ρ
At a voltage minimum, V and V+ are π out of phase making the angle of
or
V− ρ = ρ ∠π
ρ = + <180° ;
V
so that 3.27(c).
1 − ρ ∠π 1 + ρ
Yin = = =S
1 + ρ ∠π 1 − ρ
52
i. To maximum power carrying capacity: standing waves produce voltage
peaks higher than those of the impressed wave form, thus leading to an
earlier possibility of dielectric break-down.
ii. To achieve a higher transfer of power to the load. Note that most high
frequency lines have a characteristic impedance which is purely resistive,
so that maximum power is transferred when load resistance RL = RC the
Characteristic impedance.
iii. In communication systems, reflections and re-reflections can cause echoes
in the system.
iv. In some systems, like those employing microwaves tubes or high power
transmitter tubes, a high level of reflections can lead to destruction of the
tube or a drastic shortening of its life – time. Isolators can be used for tube
protection but these become unacceptably expensive at high power levels.
In practical systems, steps are therefore always taken to obtain the best match
possible. The commonest methods make use of line transformers and /or stub
tuning.
characteristic impedance (fig 3.8). The idea is to match the load to the
Z2 ZL
line with .
Z c = Z1
Z c=Z1 Zl
Zin λ/4
53
Using equation 3.20 (lossless line) show that the impedance, presented to the
Zin
3.28
Ζ2
Ζ in = 2
ΖL
We require
Ζin = Ζ 1
i.e. or 3.29
Ζ 2
Ζ2 = Ζ 1Ζ L
2
= Ζ1 ,
ΖL
In other words, the load ZL is matched to the line characteristic impedance Z1 if
the intermediate quarter wave section has a characteristic impedance .
Ζ1Ζ L
The line acts like an ideal transformer of turns ratio . The quarter
λ 4 Ζ1 Ζ L
Stub matching makes use of reactive elements connected in shut or series with
the load. Stubs may be open-circuited or short-circuited lengths of transmission
line. Their matching ability arises from the fact that the impedance looking into
the section as given by equations 3.16 and 3.17 varies with the stub length as
the input impedence is the function of the length of the line.
For single stub matching, Fig 3.9 shows a line of normalized characteristic
admittance (Normalisation w.r.t the characteristic admittance) terminated
YC = 1
54
in a pure conductive load of normalized admittance . We want to obtain
YL = G
expressions for the length, Io, of a short circuited stub with characteristic
impedance and its distance d from the load where it is matched to the line.
YC
In general, short-circuit stubs are preferred to open circuit stubs because of their
ease of adjustment and better mechanical rigidity.
lo Yc=1
Yc=1 Yl=G
d
Yin =1+jB
Fig 3.9: Single-stub matching network.
Principle:
Because of the impedance transforming properties of a transmission line, there
will be some point distance “d” from the load at which the normalized input
admittance will be . If we connect a stub with normalized input
Yin = 1 + jΒ
55
To obtain d, equate real and imaginary parts and solve for t to show that:
3.30(a)
λ G
d= cos −1
2π 1 +G
or 3.30(b)
λ G −1
d= cos −1
4π G +1
where the alternative solutions 3.30(a) and (b) are obtained according as
we set or we replace 2 by
1 − cos2 β d cos β d
2
1 + cos 2 β d .
tan2 β d =
cos2 β d
Using equation 3.16 for the input impedance of a short circuited transmission line
and using for a lossless line, we have;
tanh γ l = j tan β l
or
− jΒ = − j cot β l 0 1− G
cot β l0 =
G
And 3.32
λ G
l0 = tan −1
2π 1− G
The sign of must be chosen to give the correct sign for for
G Β :Use+ G
and for
0< d <λ − G λ <d < λ .
4 4 2
56
The above analysis is easy if is real, but becomes rather involved for
YL YL
complex. In that case, the second method below is preferred.
lo Yc=1
Yc=1 Yl=G
do dmin
d
Yin =1+jB
If is the distance from the voltage minimum to the point where the input
d0
S replacing :
G
3.34
λ S −1
d0 = cos −1
4π S +1
57
3.35
λ S
l0 = tan −1
2π ( 1− S )
Series Stubs
It is possible to use a series stub (fig 3.11) for matching, in which case we
consider solution in terms of the normalized input impedance. This has been left
as an exercise for the Student.
lo
Zc=Z1 Vmin Zl
do Zin=1/S
b d a l d d l
Yl
jB1 b a
jB2
Figure 3.12: Double Stub Tuner (Left) and Triple Stub Tuner (Right)
Both the tuners in fig 3.12 can be used for matching, the triple stub tuner
matching a wider range of loads. We shall consider only the double stub tuner. A
58
common approach to the problem is graphic, but we shall first attempt the
analytic approach for completeness.
where .
t = tan βd
We have now got the case of the single stub tuner for which we require
so that with the second stub having a susceptance the load will
Yb = 1+ jΒ − jΒ
be matched to the line. Equating the real part of the RHS of 3.36 to 1 gives:
3.37
4t ( 1 − ΒL t − Β1 t)
2
1+ t 2
GL = 2 1 ± 1 −
2t (1+ t 2 )2
1± ( 1+t ) G
2
L −GL2t 2
Β1 = −ΒL +
t
3.39
± G L ( 1 + t 2 ) −GL2 t 2 −GL
Β=
GL t
59
The upper and lower signs in 3.38 and 3.39 go together. For a match, we then
chose .
jΒ2 = − jΒ
With a single stub tuner, each load and frequency requires a new position of the
stub, which is extremely inconvenient in a practical system. This problem is
overcome by using two stubs located at fixed distance from the load. However if
we consider equation 3.37 we see that must be real, this putting limits on the
GL
expression under the square root sign. A necessary condition is that the value of
the square root term lies between zero and one, i.e., the limits on are
GL
1+ t2 1
0 ≤ GL ≤ =
t 2
sin2 βd
This means that some load admittances cannot be matched with a double-stub
tuner. This problem is overcome using the triple –stub tuner. If the stubs are
spaced apart and each one can be varied in length over at least half a
3λ 8
wavelength, any admittance can be matched to the line.
60
3.40(a)
ΖR − ΖC
ρ=
ΖR + ΖC
We can define the reflection coefficient, ρ(l) at a distance I from the termination:
Ζ in ( l ) − ΖC
ρ ( l) =
Ζ in ( l ) + ΖC
i.e. 3.40(b)
Ζ ΖC − 1
ρ=
Ζ ΖC + 1
real ( a good approximation for most high freguency lines ). 3.40(b) becomes:
rn + jxn − 1
u + jv =
rn + jxn + 1
Eliminate
Xn
u 2 ( rn + 1) − 2ur n+ v 2 r( n+ 1=) −1 r n
61
Divide through by and complete the square of the resulting terms
( rn +1)
containing
u2 &u :
3.42
2
rn 1
u − +v =
2
rn + 1 ( rn + 1)
2
1
rn + 1
other words, for all values of , the loci (circles ) will lie within the unit circle for
rn
jxn − 1 1 + x n2
ρ = = =1
jxn + 1 1 + xn2
62
Fig. 3.12: Co-ordinate circles for constant normalized resistance
the locus of any constant value of on the -plane is found to be given by:
xn ρ
3.43
2 2
( u − 1) + v − 1 = 1
2
xn x n
These loci are again circles of radius and center (Fig. 3.13): only
1 1, 1
xn xn
the portions within the bounding circle are plotted.
(ρ = 1)
1+ ρ
S=
1− ρ
63
it is evident that loci for constant VSWR on the p-plane are also circle with center
(0,0). The circle for S = 1 (matched case, ) corresponds to the center of the
ρ =0
chart and the bounding circle for corresponds to the bounding circle
S =∞
. For any required value of S, the radial scaling is shown on the scale
(ρ = 1)
λ φ λ
d min = 1+ ± n
4 π 2
or 3.44
d min 1 φ 1
= 1+ ± n
λ 4 π 2
an integer. From equation 3.44, it can be seen that varies from 0.25 to
d min
λ
0.75 as varies from 0 to , so that can be plotted round the
φ 2π d min
λ
circumference of the chart (fig. 3.14).
64
Fig. 3.14: Radial line loci of constant on the -plane.
d min ρ
λ
Note that loci of constant are radial lies as shown in fig. 3.14. since the
d min
λ
standing wave pattern is periodic in (lossless line), the maximum value of
λ 2
is 0.5
d min λ
65
Draw a radial line through this point from the center of the chart (1,0) to meet
the angle of reflection co-efficient circle .
∠ρ = 309 0
Note that constant loci are concentric circles whose radii relative to the
ρ
distance from the obtain from the radially scaled chart next to the
Ζn ρ
Smith chart: .
ρ = 0.82
Det of S and .
d min
The value of is -0.30+ j0.55 at the load end of low-loss transmission line.
ρ
Determine S and .
d min
Establish this point on the chart using the scale for and the constant circle,
φ ρ
.
ρ = 0.63
66
Determine S either using the radially scaled chart next to the Smith chart, or, by
moving along the constant circle to the axis where . Here
ρ xn = 0 rn = 4.4.
Air dielectric
⇒ v0 = C & λ = c f = 0.375m
∴ d min / λ = 0.233
Impedance Transformation
67
We again assume a lossless line (or a high frequency line which approximates a
lossless line when we are not evaluating attenuation). On such a line , the
reflection coefficient magnitude, is essentially constant everywhere on the
ρ
line so that impedance transformation simply consists of moving an appropriate
distance along a constant circle. Starting at any point, the transformed
ρ
impedance at any point can be obtained by moving the right number of
wavelengths towards the load (outer scale of the chart ) or towards the generator
(inner scale). The normalized transformed impedance is then read off the chart.
Preliminary Information:
Separation of minima
⇒ λ= 0.45
× 2
= 0.9 m
Frequency
= v λ= 3.33MHZ
(Ref. Ex.3): .
Ζ n = 1.62 − j 0.86
68
Transform impedance by moving 0.17 wavelength towards the load. (Can
you see why?. Always subtract an integral number of half wavelengths from
).
d λ Ζant = .077 + j0.70, &Ζ ant = zant x50= 37.5+ j35Ω .
1
∴ Ζm( in) =
Ζ n ( L)
This implies that any normalized impedance co-ordinate on the Smith Chart
can be transformed to the corresponding normalized admittance co-
ordinate by transforming it through a quarter wavelength, i.e., rotating
through 180.
Wavelengths towards the load: 0.205. Using this and the VSWR of 3.25, we
move 0.205 wavelengths towards the load on the constant VSWR circle to
obtain
yn = 0.33 + j 0.26.
Where relative to a voltage minimum on the line might stub lines be placed to
remove standing waves at the generator side of the stub?
69
Obtain the required short circuit stub length for matching if the characteristic
impedance of the stub is the same as that of the transmission line.
Assignment Three B
3.1. Starting from maxwell’s equations, Obtain the one dimension current
wave equation in 3.3(b) (below)
3.3(b)
∂i2
∂i ∂ i 2
− ( RC + LG ) − LC 2− RGi= 0
∂z 2
∂t ∂t
3.2. Prove that for a Low loss line at very high frequencies (UHF), the condition
1 R G
γ= ( R+ jwL ) ( G + jwC ) ≈ jw LC + LC + = α + jβ
2 L C
3.3. Using equation 3.20 (lossless line) show that the input impedance, ,
Zin
Ζ 22
Ζ in =
ΖL
3.28
70
Solution:
Ζa = 134 + j0Ω ; Ltx = 1.82 m
Answer:
d 0=
Ι 0=
71
CHAPTER 4: WAVE PROPAGATION IN WAVEGIDES
2.
b
Figure 4.1: Parallel infinite
z
conducting planes
b
∇ΧΗ = ( σ + jwε )Ε
∇ΧΕ = − jwµΗ
∇ 2Ε = γ 2Ε and∇ 2Η = γ 2Η
where
γ= jwµ (σ + jwε )
In Cartesian co-ordinates, for the non –conducting region where , the curl
σ =0
equations can be written as:
72
3.45
aˆ x aˆ y aˆz
∂ ∂ ∂
= jwε ( aˆ xΕ x + aˆ yΕ y + aˆzΕ z )
∂x ∂y ∂z
Η xΗ y Η z
3.46
aˆ x aˆ y aˆ z
∂ ∂ ∂
= jwµ ( aˆΗ x + aˆ yΗ y + aˆ zΗ z )
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ε xΕ yΕ z
∂ 2Ε ∂ 2Ε ∂ Ε2
+ + = − w2 µε
Ε
∂x ∂ y ∂ z
2 2 2
3.47
∂ 2Η ∂ 2Η ∂ 2Η
+ 2 + 2 = − w2 µεΗ
∂x 2
∂y ∂z
3.48
We can reasonably assume that fields are uniform or constant in the y-direction
since there are no boundary conditions to be satisfied. The derivatives with
respect to y in 3.45 and 3.46 can be put to zero. Recall also that for propagation
in the z-direction, . Equations 3.45- 3.48 now become:
∂ ∂ z≡− y
γΗ y = jwεΕ x γΕ y = − jwµΗ x
3.49
∂Η z ∂Ε z
−γΗ x − = jwεΕ y −γΕ x − = − jwµΗ y
∂x ∂x
∂Η y ∂Ε y
= jwεΕ z = − jwµΗ
∂x ∂x
73
3.50
∂Ε
2
+ γ 2Ε = − w2µεΕ
∂x 2
∂ 2Η
+ γ 2Η = − w2µεΗ
∂x 2
Hx=-γh2∂Hz∂x
Hy=jωεEx
γHy=jωε∂Ez∂x-jωμHy-γ and -γ2Hy=jωε∂Ez∂x+ω2μεHy
-γ2-ω2μεHy=jωε∂Ez∂x
Hy=-jωεh2∂Ez∂x
-γEx-∂Ez∂x=-jμεHy=-jωμjωεExγ and -γ2-ω2μεEx=γ∂Ez∂x
Ex=-γh2∂Ez∂x
γEy=-jωμHx
γEy=-jωμ∂Hz∂x+jωεEy-γ
-γ2Ey-ω2μεEy=-jωμ∂Hz∂x
Ey=jωμh2∂Hz∂x
TE Waves: There is always and every where an electric field vector that is
transverse to the direction of propagation and Ez=0
or ∂2Eyo ∂x2=-h2Eyox
74
h the “characteristics value “ or eigenvalue
Eyx,z=C1sinmπaxe-γz
To the H fields
∂Ey∂x=-jωμHz, => Hz=-1jωμ∂Ey∂x=-mπjωμcosmπaxe-γz
γEy=-jωμHx, => Hx=-1jωμEy=-γjωμC1sinmπaxe-γz
Figure 4.2: Electric and magnetic field distributions of TE1 and TE2 modes in
parallel plate waveguides
Transverse magnetic (TM) fields: There is always and every where a magnetic
field vector transverse to the direction of propagation and Hz=0
75
EZ=1jωε∂Hy∂x = 1jωε∂∂xC3sinhx + C4coshxe-γz
EZ=hjωεC3coshx- C4sinxe-γz
Figure 4.3: Electric and magnetic filed distributions of TM1 and TM2 modes in
parallel plate waveguides
This similar to the previous solutions EXCEPT there are no z fields, i.e
Ez=Hz=0
The TE mode vanishes since Hz=0. Also all but the m=0 TM mode vanish when
h=0.
We remain with only the TMO mode , which is the TEM mode.
Hy= C4 e-γz i.e. cosmπax goes to 1 if m=0
Ex=-γjωμC4e-γz
Ez=-jmπωεaC4sinmπaxe-γz=0
76
So we have Ex, Hy but Ez =0. Therefore;
1.1.2.
ii. X-Y planes are equiphase planes, i.e. surface of constant phase.
iii. The equiphase surface propagate along the waveguide with phase
velocity vp=ωβ
Eyx,z,t=C1sinmπaxcos(ωt-βz),
γ=h2-ω2μϵ=mπa2-ω2μϵ .
There is the cutoff frequency fcmfor which γ=0. Solving for f we obtain
fcm=m2aμϵ=mvp2a
Propagating Wave: For f>fcm , mπa2-ω2μϵ <0. Using the expressions for
fcm
77
γ = j βm = jω2μϵ-mπa2 = jω2μϵ-2fcmπvp2 = jβ2-2fcmπvp2
γ=jβm1-2fcmπvpβ2 = jβm1-fcmf2
where β=ωvp and ω=2πf and βm emphasizes that this is for mode
m.
ZTEm=-EyHx=-C1sinmπaxe-jβz-βωμC1sinmπaxe-jβz=βωμ=ωμβ1-
fcmf2
ZTEm=η1-fcmf2
ZTMm=η1-fcmf2
78
Figure 4.5: variation of impedance ( ZTMmη and ZTEmη ) against frequency (
fcmf )
1.1.1. Dispersion
Let us consider the “simple” case of a uniform plane wave in a medium with zero
conductivity. What would happen if we had two waves propagating, each at a
slightly different frequency, and a function of ?
– assume the two frequencies are ± with corresponding
phase constants ±
E1 ∝
6 447 4 48 6 4 4 E72∝4 48
j ( ω −δω ) t − ( β −δβ ) z j ( ω +δω ) t − ( β +δβ ) z
e +e =
j ωt − β z + ( −δω ) t − ( −δβ ) z j ω t − β z + ( δω ) t − ( δβ ) z
=e +e
j[ ωt − β z ] j ( −δω ) t − ( −δβ ) z j[ ωt − β z ] j ( +δω ) t −( +δβ ) z
=e e +e e
=e
j [ ωt − β z ] e − j ( δω ) t −( δβ ) z + e j ( δω ) t −( δβ ) z
If we have two waves propagating, each at a slightly different frequency, where
the two frequencies are ± with corresponding phase constants ±
then the solution is proportional to
∝e
j [ ωt − β z ] e − j ( δω ) t −( δβ ) z + e j ( δω ) t −( δβ ) z
= e j [ ωt − β z ] ⋅ 2 cos ( δω ⋅ t − δβ ⋅ z )
14 2 43 1 4 4 42 4 4 43
"normal " amplitude
wave @ modulation
frequency ω function
In words, this looks just like a wave at the frequency and associated phase
constant , with phase velocity but multiplied with an “amplitude
modulation” function
cos ( δω ⋅ t − δβ ⋅ z )
The “velocity” of a phase front for this modulation envelope is
Group velocity
If we have two waves propagating, each at a slightly different frequency, ±
, the solution behaves like a wave at the frequency with associated
phase constant , traveling at the phase velocity vp = but it is multiplied by
an “amplitude modulation” function traveling at the “velocity” . This is
called the “group velocity” vg
In the limit of infinitesimal variation we obtain the “group velocity” vg
−1
dω d β
vg = =
d β dω
79
Dispersion (β-ω) diagrams
Consider the plot of β versus ω fro the TE1/TM1 modes in a parallel plate
waveguide
2
ω
ω
1− c
Β=
1
υp =
ω
µε
ωC1 ω C2
−1 2
dω ωc
υg = = υ p 1 −
dβ ω
υp
Region
2
Normalized mλ
υ p υ p1 υg VE = Vg = V p 1 −
or 2a
υp υp υp
which is also the
component of each
mode’s velocity in the
f z direction.
1 2 3 4 fc
80
usually (but not always) related to “packet velocity”, vgroup is normally less than
c.
Practical waveguides are made of copper or brass usually coated with silver.
Assuming losses very small so that they have negligible effect on the field
distribution the attenuation for different modes are (See assignment 4 for
derivation of the expression given below)
αcTEM=1ηaωμo2σ
αc,TEm=2m2π2βωηa3ωμo2σ
And
αc,TMm=2Rsηa1-fcmf2Rs
Figure 4.7: Attenuation versus frequency for the parallel plate waveguide.
Observations
• The figure shows the attenuation as a function of frequency for a few modes.
Higher order modes have higher losses.
81
• TM modes have higher losses than TE modes since they have a tangential J
due to tangential Hy i.e. Hy=C4cosmπaxe-jβz
82
1.1. THE RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE.
Typically b>>a,
infinite in z
We also want the field to vary in the z-direction as e-γz. Aside from the boundary
conditions this is no different than the parallel plate waveguide and must satisfy
the curl equations ∇XH=jωεE and ∇XE=-jωμH , that we have developed for the
parallel plate waveguide using ∂∂z→-γ
∂Hz∂y+γHy=jωεEx ∂Ez∂y+γEy=-jωμHx
∂Hz∂x+γHx=-jωεEy ∂Ez∂x+γEx=jωμHy
∂Hy∂x-∂Hx∂y=jωεEx ∂Ey∂x-∂Ex∂y=-jωμHx
83
∂2Hz∂x2+ ∂2Hz∂y2+γ2Hz= -ω2μϵHz
Hx=-γh2∂Hz∂x+jωεh2∂Ez∂y Ey=-γh2∂Ez∂y+jωμh2∂Hz∂x
Hy=-γh2∂Hz∂y-jωεh2∂Ez∂x
Ex=-γh2∂Ez∂x-jωμh2∂Hz∂y
Where h2=γ2+ω2μϵ
Just as for the parallel plate waveguide the field solutions can be classified as
TE where Ez=0
TM where Hz=0
For waveguides, we write the wave equations using a transverse operator ∇tr
which can be written as ∇tr=x∂∂x+y∂∂y
And ∇tr2=∂2∂x2+∂2∂y2
∇tr2Hz+γ2+ω2μϵHz=0
Etr=xEx+yEy=-xγh2∂Ez∂x-yγh2∂Ez∂y
Htr=xHx+yHy=xjωεh2∂Ez∂y-yjωεh2∂Ez∂x
Htr=jωεh2x∂Ez∂y-y∂Ez∂x
Htr=jωεh2x-h2Eyγ-y-h2Exγ
Htr=jωεh2γh2xEx+yEy
Htr=jωεγxyzExEy0001
We can do the component equation for the TE waves in the same way
Htr=xHx+yHy=-γγ2+ω2μϵ∇trHz
Etr=xEx+yEy=jωμγHtrxz
84
Where the boundary condition is n.Htr=0 or
∂Hz∂x=0 , ∂Hz∂y=0
We use separation of variables similar to that which we used for parallel plate
waveguide.
Ez(x,y,z)=Ezo(x,y)e-γz
∇tr2fg+γ2+ω2μϵfg=0
And gy=C3cosAy+C4sin(Ay)
Ezox,y=C1C3cosBxcosAy+C1C4cosBxsinAy+C2C3sin(Bx)cos(Ay)
+C2C4sin(Bx)sin(Ay)
At x=0 , Ezo0,y=C1C3cosAy+C1C4sinAy
Ezox,y=C2C3sin(Bx)cos(Ay)+C2C4sin(Bx)sin(Ay)
85
We pick C3=0 since picking C2=0 would be a trivial solution. If we let
C2C4=C
Ezox,y=CsinBxsinAy.
At x=a, , Ezoa,y=CsinBasinAy=0
At y=b, , Ezox,b=CsinBxsinAb=0.
Therefore for the propagating modes, ( γ=jβmn), the fields expressions are
Ezx,y,z=Csinmπaxsinnπbye-jβmnz
ξzx,y,z,t=Csinmπaxsinnπbycos(ωt-βmnz)
Ezx,y,z=Csinmπaxsinnπbye-αmnz
And ξzx,y,z,t=Csinmπaxsinnπbycos(ωt)e-αmnz
The other field components can also be calculated using component equations.
For TM modes,
Ex=-γh2∂Ez∂x , Ey=-γh2∂Ez∂y
Ez=Csinmπaxsinnπbye-jβmnz
And Ex=-jβmnCh2mπacosmπaxsinnπbye-jβmnz
Similarly, Ey=-jβmnCh2nπbsinmπaxcosnπbye-jβmnz
Hx=jωεCh2nπbsinmπaxcosnπbye-jβmnz
Hy=-jωεh2mπacosmπaxsinnπbye-jβmnz
h2=A2+B2=mπa2+nπb2
Knowing h2 γ=mπa2+nπb2-ω2μϵ
86
1.1.2. Cut off Frequency in rectangular Waveguides:
ωcnm2=1μϵmπa2+nπb2
ωcnm=1μϵmπa2+nπb2
Where βmn=ω2μϵ-mπa2-nπb2
βmn=β1-fcmf2.
⋋cmn=2πμε με mπa2+nπb2=2ma2+nb2
⋋mn=2πβ=2πω2μϵ-mπa2-nπb2=⋋1-fcmf2
87
fcmn/
f c10
TE02
5 TE
22
2 ,T
2
M2
TE
1
4 TE01
,TM 2
1
T E21
3
, TM 2
1
T E1 1
2 TE20
1 TE10
a/b
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 4.9 :Cut off frequency for various waveguide dimensions
ZTMmn=β1-fcmf2ωε=ωμεωε1-fcmf2
ZTMmn=η1-fcmf2
Hy=jβmnCh2nπbcosmπaxsinnπbye-jβmnz
Ex=jωμCh2nπbcosmπaxsinnπbye-jβmnz
Hy=-jωμh2mπasinmπaxcosnπbye-
jβmnzHy=-jωμh2mπasinmπaxcosnπbye-jβmnz
88
The formulae for ωcnm, βmnetc are identical. One different formula is that of
impedance which is given by ZTMmn=η1-fcmf2
Hy=-jωμh2πasinπaxe-jβmnz
β10=ω2μϵ-πa2=2π⋋2-πa2
⋋10=2πβ10=⋋1-⋋2a2
fc10=12aμε
89
Figure 4.11: Some selected field patterns in the X-Y plane in rectangular
waveguides [2]
We have not talked about how to couple power for particular modes into
waveguides. The practice is to use a probe (source) that will produce lines of E
and H that are roughly parallel to the lines of E and H for that particular mode
and that produce the maximum electric field where the field would be maximum
for that mode. A single probe will excite the TE10 mode into the waveguide
Figure 4.12: Coupling TE10 and TE20 modes into a rectangular waveguide
To excite the TE20 mode, use two vertical antenna probes while the TE11 mode
requires parallel excitation of the electric field at the wall.
90
Figure 4.12: Coupling TE11 and TM10 modes into a rectangular waveguide
In practice waveguide dimensions are chosen to allow only one mode to
propagate. Square waveguides (where a=b) are undesirable since modes differ
only by rotation. In practice pick a≈2b to separate modes and maximize power
transmission.
Final Notes on Single mode waveguides:
• Different phase velocities would give different transverse modes and make
it difficult to extract energy.
• Chose λ/2 <a< λ to ensure transmission of only the TE10 mode
• Often pick a=.07 λ since values near λ may allow the next mode to
propagate and values near λ /2 have large variation of vp and ZTEorTM with f.
91
1.1. CIRCULAR WAVEGIDES
Detailed analysis on circular waveguides has been left to the student. The
following should however be noted:
92
Figure 4.15: Electric and Magnetic fields in Circular waveguides for selected
modes
Assignment Four
I.1. Derive the expressions for attenuation of the TEM, TEm and TMn modes in
a parallel plate waveguide
93
CHAPTER 5: WAVE ROPAGATION IN OTHER SYSTEMS
1.
2.
2.1. PLASMAS
94
The applied electric field E(t) in equation 6.2 can have any time dependence. In
particular, if we assume it is sinusoidal with frequency ω, E(t)= Eejωt, then,
equation 6.2 will have the solution x(t)= xejωt, where the phasor x must satisfy
equation 6.2 re-written in harmonic form as:
-ω2x+jωγx+ω02x=emE 6.3
Its solution therefore is: x=emEω02x-ω2+jωγ
6.4
To describe a collision less plasma, such as the ionosphere, the simple model
above can be specialized by choosing ω0 = γ = 0. Thus, Equation 6.4 becomes:
x=-emEω2 6.5
The corresponding electron velocity will also be sinusoidal v(t)= vejωt, where
v=x=jωx. Thus, v=jωx=-jωemEω2 6.6
Assuming that there are N such elementary dipoles per unit volume, since the
individual electric dipole moment is p = ex, then the polarization per unit volume
P, will be:
P=Np=Nex=-Ne2mEω2=ε0X(ω)E
6.7
The electric flux density will then be: D=ε0E+P=ε01+XωE=ε(ω)E
6.8
where the effective permittivity ε(ω) is: ε(ω)=ε0-Ne2mEω2
or in a more convenient form, εω=ε0-ε0ωp2ω2=ε0(1-ωp2ω2)
6.9
where ωp is the so-called “Plasma Frequency” of the material defined by:
ωp2=Ne2ε0m
6.10
The plasma frequency can be calculated from equation 6.10. In the ionosphere
the electron density is typically N = 1012, which gives fp = 9 MHz
From chapter 5, we saw that the propagation wavenumber of an electromagnetic
wave propagating in an electric/conducting medium is given in terms of the
effective permittivity by:
k=ω√(με((ω))
It follows that for plasma: k=ωμ0ε01-ωp2ω2=1cμε0ω2-ωp2 6.11
where we used c=1μ0ε0
If ω > ωp, the electromagnetic wave propagates without attenuation within the
plasma. But if ω < ωp, the wavenumber k becomes imaginary and the wave gets
attenuated. At such frequencies, a wave incident (normally) on the ionosphere
from the ground cannot penetrate and gets reflected back.
1.2. MICROSTRIP TRANSMISSION LINES
As circuits have been reduced in size with integrated semiconductor electron
devices, a transmission structure was required that was compatible with circuit
construction techniques to provide guided waves over limited distances. This was
realized with a planar form of single wire transmission line over a ground plane,
95
called microstrip. Microstrip employs a flat strip conductor suspended above a
ground plane by a low-loss dielectric material. The size of the circuit can be
reduced through judicious use of a dielectric constant some 2-10 times that of
free space (or air), with a penalty that the existence of two different dielectric
constants (below and above the strip) makes the circuit difficult to analyze in
closed form (and also introduces a variability of propagation velocity with
frequency that can be a limitation on some applications). The solution is to find
an effective relative permittivity εreff for the combination.
The advantages of microstrip have been well established, and it is a convenient
form of transmission line structure for probe measurements of voltage, current
and waves. Microstrip structures are also used in integrated semiconductor form,
directly interconnected in microwave integrated circuits.
(a) (b)
Figure 6.1: (a) The Microstrip and (b) The Stripline Conductor
Waves and Impedances in Microstrip
Although the presence of two dielectric regimes in microstrip precludes the strict
propagation of TEM waves, the same type of transmission-line characteristics
are present, as can be seen from the fact that microstrip can propagate energy
down to zero frequency (direct current). Microstrip construction lends itself to
small structures that can carry semiconductor devices and surface-mount lumped
elements, which can be attached by automatic means.
This extreme usefulness of microstrip makes the lack of an elegant closed-form
solution acceptable, and accurate approximations based on the
velocity/capacitance method are used to estimate Zo and other parameters.
Unwanted modes are dealt with in part by using material with a relatively high
dielectric constant, but waveguide modes are present and represent an upper
frequency limit. The effects of unwanted waveguide modes can be restricted by
choosing dielectric thickness less than λ/4 and strip width w less than λ /2 at the
highest frequency of interest. Thus, for a maximum frequency of interest fmax, we
chose
96
Note that It's difficult to get more than 200W for Z0 in a microstrip. For the simple
closed form solution, the approximations below would be used in the relations
above.
Stripline Conductor
Also called shielded microstrip, it uses a different dielectric (different from air) on
the upper side of the line. The effective relative permittivity is used in calculations
above.
Assuming w≥10h,
where er1 = the relative permittivity of the dielectric of thickness h1.
er2 = the relative permittivity of the dielectric of thickness h2.
97
Fig 6.2: (a) Unguided wave since (b) Guided wave since θi>θc gives
θi<θc and wave refracts out of guide total internal reflection. However not
any angle can propagate
Fig 6.3
98
To do it graphically, plot LHS and RHS e.g figure 6.4 for the following
parameters: f=30GHz, d=1 cm, εd=2.25ε0 (glass sorrounded by air).
TE1 θi=75.030
TE2 θi=59.470
TE3 θi=43.860
Assignment
6.1. Calculate the plasma frequency in the ionosphere where the electron
density is typically N = 1012
6.2. Discuss the advantages and uses of microstrip in today’s world. What are
the major challenges to their use and how are they overcome
99
REFERENCES:
[1] E.C. Jordan and K.G. Balmain, “Electromagnetic Waves And
Radiating Systems”, 2nd Edition
[2] Sophocles J. Orfanidis, “Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas”, ECE
Department, Rutgers University
[3] C.S. Lee, S. W. Lee and S. L. Chuang, Plot of modal field distribution in
rectangular and circular waveguides, IEEE trans. Microwave Theory and
Techniques, 33(3). PP 271-274, March 1985
[4] BO THIDÉ, “Electromagnetic Field Theory”, Internet Text Book
[5] Leonard M. Magid, “Electromagnetic Fields, Energy and Waves”, John
Wiley & Sons
10
0
APPENDICES
To get started,
recall that to get
no reflection at
plane B you must
be on the "g = 1"
circle in plane B'.
We can move the
"g=1" circle to
plane A so that
we can ultimately
find Y1:
10
1
10
2
Now we have to
get the load to
plane A':
Now we must
move on a circle
of constant real
part of Yload in
plane A' to get
onto the
transformed g=1
circle in plane A;
this will actually
give us Y1:
10
3
Now for each
possible choice
of Y1 we need to
move back to
plane B'; this will
gives us Y2:
10
4