11

Springs

11.1 Helical Compression Spring

Consider a coil spring in compression due to force F in the diagram below. The number of active turns of
the spring is four. Any two cross sectional cuts we make along the four helical turns will expose an internal torque
FD /2, where D is coil diameter. This internal torque counterbalances the external torque produced by F . The
internal torque produces a torsional shear stress τ in the wire

( FD /2 ) ( d /2 ) 8 FD
τ= = ,
π d 4 /32 π d3
where d is wire diameter. F also produces a direct shear stress of 4 F/ π d 2, which is smaller than the torsional
shear stress by a factor of 2 D/d . Adding them together gives the maximum stress in the wire,

τ=
8 FD
πd 3 (
1+
d
2D
. )
Introducing the spring index C=D/d , we have

τ=
8 FC
πd 2 (
1+
0.5
C
, )
where the factor

0.5
K s =1+
C
is called shear stress correction factor. The above maximum stress is what we use for a static analysis of a helical
compression spring.

If the load F varies with time, the spring will experience a fatigue failure and the original maximum stress
formula is instead modified by Wahl factor K w
 8 FC
τ= 2
Kw ,
πd
where

4 C−1 0.615
Kw= + .
4 C−4 C
Wahl factor incorporates coil curvature effect that makes the inner surface of the coil experience a localized
increased stress. Plot below shows that the correction factors decrease with increased C . This plot shows the
Wahl factor is about 2/3 larger than the (static) shear stress correction factor. We use the maximum stress formula
with the Wahl factor when we consider a spring fatigue.

In addition to ensuring that coil spring does not either yield nor fatigue, the spring must also produce the
intended spring constant. We obtain the spring constant of a coil spring from employing Castigliano's method.
Recall that the elastic energy due to torque T is
L
T2
U =∫ dx ,
0 2 GJ

where J=π d 4 /32 , and G=E /2 ( 1+ ν ) is shear modulus. Substituting T =FD /2, dx= ( D /2 ) dθ , where θ is
the circumferential angle, and L=2 πN , the θ integral will resolve to

πN F2 D3 4 D3 F 2 N
U= = 4
.
8GJ d G
Taking a derivative of U with respect to F , we would be able to obtain the spring constant

Gd
k= 3
.
8C N
Note that the coil spring deflection δ is given by

F
δ= .
k
 For a large enough compressive F , a coil spring can become spring solid at which the nearest neighboring
wires touch each other. The solid length of N active turns is equal to

Ls =Nd .
The spring solid condition is to be avoided. Consider a coil spring with plain ends in the diagram below. The top end
is to be rigidly mounted to the load so that the top end does not twist under load. Further down from the top end,
the wire would be able to twist under load. Therefore, not all turns in the coil become active coils. Turn allowance
thus has to be added to the active turns N to make up the entire spring, which depends on the types of spring
ends. In our problem solving calculations we shall ignore this end effect.

Spring length shortening over a long period of time is called a set and is to be avoided. This can be
achieved by introducing residual stress so that the actual torsional stress is reduced. Residual stress is introduced
by having the length of spring longer than designed and then compressing it solid to cause yielding. This process is
called presetting. After presetting, the spring does not return completely to its free length and thus stores the
plastic deformation energy as compressive shear stress. The maximum static shear stress τ s to avoid set is

 τ s ≤ 0.65 Su for ferrous alloys with presetting.

 τ s ≤ 0.45 Su for ferrous alloys without presetting.
 τ s ≤ 0.55 Su for nonferrous and austenitic stainless steel alloys with presetting.
 τ s ≤ 0.35 Su for nonferrous and austenitic stainless steel alloys without presetting.
They show that for the same alloy the maximum shear stress is allowed larger if presetting is performed.

When a spring is in service, the turns should not clash. Therefore we need to provide clash allowance in
order to avoid the turns to become spring solid. Clash allowance is set at 10% of the spring deflection at the
maximum load, i.e., the maximum spring deflection.

Another important consideration is prevention of buckling when the compressive force exerts on a spring.
A convenient way to check whether a spring risks buckling is by dividing its free length Lf with the coil diameter D
. If the ratio is greater than 4, the spring risks buckling, which is captured by the diagram below.
11.2 Fatigue in Spring
We have seen that spring has torsional and direct shear stresses. Because torsional stress is larger than
the shear stress, the spring’s stress state is dominated by the torsional. The sign of the torsional stress is the same
regardless the direction of the torque, i.e., it is always an instantaneous extension. Above and below the mean
torsional stress the spring load can have alternating torsional stress, yet this alternating torsional stress therefore
can have only one sign which is positive due to the extensional nature of a torsional elastic deformation. The same
stress sign for both mean and alternating components means that not all area of Goodman diagram will be
occupied when fatigue of a spring is studied.

Because the stress state has the same sign, the alternating stress will be at most equal to the mean stress.
This must be so because the sign cannot become negative. If they are equal, they are described by the equation

τ a=τ m ,

τa
which divides the Goodman diagram into upper and lower triangular sectors. The =1 line is a fluctuating load
τm
situation in which the minimum total stress is zero. The upper triangular sector where τ a> τ m does not apply for
springs. If shear stresses are plotted for Goodman diagram, instead of the bending stress, then the shear stress is
upper bounded by 0.8 Su .
 Fatigue information is thus presented little differently by spring manufacturers. Instead of plotting τ a vs.
τ m, the normalized maximum shear stress τ max /S u is plotted against the normalized minimum shear stress τ min / Su
. Now, clearly we have the following relation

τ m+ τ a=τ max ;

thus, adding the mean and alternating shear stresses along the τ a=τ m line will generate the fatigue lines at
different cycles N ’s along the τ max /S u axis. For example, in the diagram above, the 10 3-cycles line will intersect
with the τ max /S u axis at 0.38+0.38=0.76 . The 106-cycles line will intersect with the τ max /S u axis at
0.215+0.215=0.43 , while the 105-cycles line will be at 0.53. Hence, the spring fatigue diagram will look like the
diagram presented below. Each fatigue line for a certain N will be a straight line starting at the intercept point
along the τ max / S u line and ending at a point along the τ max=τ min line. What does the τ max=τ min expression
mean? It expresses the mean stress value for that N . It must be so because τ max=τ m +τ a, while τ min=τ m−τ a, so
that the statement τ max=τ min is equal to

τ a=0 ,

τm
which is the τ m axis in the (original) Goodman diagram. Because the fatigue lines for all N ’s converge to
=0.8
Su
in Goodman diagram, these fatigue lines will also converge to a point with coordinates (0.80,0 .80) in the
τ max /S u vs. τ min / Su diagram below.
 Consider a load line in a Goodman diagram, where the alternating shear stress is linearly proportional to
the mean shear stress

τ a=b τ m ,
where b must be less than 1 in order for the load line to occupy the lower triangular sector. The maximum and
minimum shear stresses can be written as

τ max=τ m +τ a=( 1+b ) τ m ,

τ min=τ m−τ a=( 1−b ) τ m ,

so that

τ max 1+b
= ,
τ min 1−b

where the slope (1+b)/(1−b) must be larger than 1 because b< 1. Thus, such load line always occupies the
upper triangular zone in the τ max /S u vs. τ min / Su diagram shown below.

The infinite-lifetime safety factor of the load line is thus equal to the length ratio
 OB
SF=
OA
based on the diagram above. Point B is the intersection between the 10 6-cycles line and the load line. Point B is
therefore the maximum-load point for an infinite lifetime (with a safety factor of 1.0 therefore). Point A is the
actual load point of the spring. It is worth pointing out that the constant fatigue-lifetime line in the τ max /S u vs.
τ min / Su diagram is described by the following equation

τ max τ 0
= + 1−
S u Su Su(
1.25 τ 0 τ min
Su
, )
where τ 0 is the intercept point with the vertical τ max /S u axis. Point B is therefore obtained by solving the above
constant fatigue-lifetime line with the load line

τ max 1+b
= ,
τ min 1−b
with the following coordinates

4( 1+ b) Su τ 0
τ max, B= ,
8 b Su +5 τ 0 (1−b)

4(1−b) S u τ 0
τ min, B=
8 b Su +5 τ 0 (1−b)
so that the length OB is equal to

√ 32 ( 1+ b )
2
OB=Su τ 0 2
.
( 8 b S u+ 5 τ 0 (1−b))
Presetting introduces a residual compressive stress so that both maximum and minimum shear stresses
are reduced. This effect is equivalent to having the load line develop a smaller slope so that the length OB
increases and results in a larger safety factor for the same load. Another way to introduce such residual stress is to
apply a shot peening surface treatment. Both presetting and shot peening can be applied independently. Shot
peening involves bombarding the spring surface with high velocity steel balls. Commonly, surface factor for the
endurance limit calculation is taken as one (C S =1) when shot peening is performed.

11.3 Spring Surge

We have assumed so far is a massless spring, where each and every coil turn moves together without any
delay. If the external force applied to the spring has a very high oscillation frequency, it is possible that the inertial
term dm a, where dm is mass of one turn and a is acceleration, acquires its own dynamics and behaves with a
delay with respect to its neighboring turns. In this case, the N turns become almost like a discrete chain of N
masses that oscillate with respect to each other. The representative oscillation frequency of this chain is the
natural frequency of the entire of mass m
 f n=
√ k
m
,

Gd
where the spring constant is what we have before: k = . The spring mass is well approximated by
8C 3 N

m≈ ( )
π d2
4
( πD ) ρN ,

where ρ is density of the spring material. Thus,

f n≈
√ (
G d
2 ρ π D2 N
.
)
For steels: G=79 GPa and ρ=7700 kg/m3 so that

720947 d
f n≈ 2
,
D N
where d and D are in mm.

This internal oscillation among the N turns is called spring surge and is to be prevented because it
interferes with the oscillation of the external force. One way to prevent the interference is to set the natural
frequency f n to be significantly higher than the external force’s oscillation frequency. Typically, f n is set at least 10
times of the external force’s oscillation frequency.
Problem 20
ASTM A229 oil-tempered carbon steel is used for a helical coil spring. The spring is wound with D=50 mm,
d=10 mm, and a pitch (distance between corresponding points of adjacent coils) of 14 mm. If the spring is
compressed solid, would the spring return to its original free length when the force is removed?

The 10-mm ASTM A229 oil-tempered carbon steel has a minimum ultimate tensile strength of

1855
Su= =1206 MPa ,
100.187
which is equal to 174.9 ksi. To make the spring return to its original free length, the spring cannot yield under shear
loading. An estimate of (torsional) yield strength is

0.35 Su ≤ S sy ≤ 0.52 Su .

As an estimate we can use the average value of the range: Ssy =0.435 Su =524.61 MPa. The 0.435 S u stress
limit is close to what we expect to be 0.45 Su for ferrous alloys without presetting.
 When the spring is compressed solid, it has to be compressed by 14 mm per coil turn. With the spring
constant of, given that D=50 mm and d=10 mm,

d4 G 5
3
=8 × 10 N/m
8D N
by taking G=E /2 ( 1+ ν )=80 GPa and N=1 , we obtain the force required to compress the spring to a solid-
height

F=kδ=3,200 N,
where δ=14 mm−10 mm=4 mm. Note that the 10 mm here is the wire thickness which must be subtracted
from the 14 mm pitch to obtain the gap that defines the deflection. Note that the spring constant can be scaled
down to N=1 , because mathematically the factor N is cancelled out when computing the force

d4 G
F=kδ = ×N ∆,
8 D3 N
where ∆ is the spring deflection per coil turn.

Hence, the resulting torsional stress in the spring is

8 FC
K s =448.2 MPa ,
π d2
where K s =1+0.5/C=1.1 for C=50/10=5. Because the stress is smaller than the shear yield strength, the
spring will return to its original free length.

Problem 21
A helical compression spring is used to support a 50 kg load. The spring is made of a 5-mm-diameter ASTM A231
austenitic alloy steel (non-stainless steel) with an estimated 2 GPa tensile strength. The maximum compression is
set at 10 mm on top of the initial compression due to the load. This 10-mm additional compression is to take up
shock and impact loadings without causing the spring to fatigue. If the spring index is specified at 8, determine the
required number of coils without presetting. Determine also the total free height of the active coils. Clash
allowance and coil end design can be ignored.

The spring constant is

dG
k= ,
8 N C3
where d=5 mm, C=8 , and G=73 GPa for typical steel grades so that the spring deflection due to the 50 kg
load

F 50 × 9.81
δ W= =
k 0.005 ×73 ×109
3
8 N ×8
will produce δ W =0.0055 N , where the number N of active turns is unknown. The additional 10 mm
compression therefore specifies the maximum deflection for the spring:

δ max =0.01+0.0055 N .
Stress in the spring has to include fatigue consideration so that we use the following shear stress formula

τ= (
8 FC 4 C−1 0.615
π d2 4 C−4
+
C )
=964,825 F ,

where F is unknown. For non-stainless steel ferrous alloys, when presetting is not performed, the stress limit is
0.45 Su=900 MPa so that the maximum force F is obtained from
6
964,815 F=900 ×10 ,
yielding F=932.8 N force. Hence, the spring force that corresponds to the allowance for the shock and impact
loadings is the maximum force minus the 50 kg load,

932.8−50 ×9.81=442.3 N .
This 442.3 N can be used to determine the number of turns:

442.3 0.005× 73 ×109

k= = ,
0.01 8 N ×8 3
producing N=2 turns. Hence, we can determine the maximum deflection

δ max =0.01+0.0055 ×2=0.021 m.

The solid height is Nd=2× 0.005=0.01 m; therefore, the total free height of the active coils is

0.01 m+0.021 m=3.1cm .

Problem 22
A helical compression spring is to be designed for infinite life when subjected to a load that fluctuates between 55
and 110 lb. Steel spring wire having Su=180 ksi, Sus=144 ksi, S y =170 ksi, Ssy =99 ksi, and a zero-to-
maximum torsional endurance limit of 80 ksi is to be used. For a value of C=7 , determine the wire diameter
theoretically required (safety factor of 1), (a) if presetting is not used and (b) if presetting is used to maximum
advantage.

(a) The load mean stress is torsional:

8 FC 8× 82.5 ×7 1779.4
2
K w × SF= 2
× 1.21× 1= 2
psi,
πd πd d
where d is the wire diameter in inches and

4 C−1 0.615
Kw= + .
4 C−4 C
The load torsional alternating is

8 FC 8× 27.5× 7 593.1
2
K w × SF= 2
× 1.21× 1= 2 psi.
πd πd d
The load line is therefore obtained by dividing the two stresses above:

σ a=0.33 σ m .

The 106 -cycles fatigue line is

σ a=80 1−( σm
144
.)
The two lines intersect at

σ a=29.81 ksi , σ m =90.34 ksi.

Therefore,

d=0.14 in.
Because there is no presetting, the total shear stress should be at most 0.45 Su=81 ksi for the steel wire used.
The total maximum shear stress is 29.81+90.34=120.15 ksi when a safety factor of 1 is used. We cannot
therefore use the 0.14 in. diameter as it could cause a spring-solid condition.

Thus, the wire diameter is determined by the load line and the condition that

σ a+ σ m =81 ksi.
They give

σ a=20.10 ksi , σ m=60.90 ksi,

which yield

d=0.17 in .
So, the diameter has to be increased from the initial 0.14 in., which satisfies the infinite lifetime requirement, to
0.17 in. so that it now satisfies both infinite lifetime and no spring-solid condition. Note that the spring is not
preset and carries a safety factor of 1.

(b) When the presetting is used, the total shear stress should be at most 0.65 Su=117 ksi. Given that the total
maximum shear stress is 120.15 ksi, here we also cannot use the 0.14 in. diameter because it only satisfies the
infinite lifetime requirement.

To make the spring satisfy both infinite lifetime and no spring-solid condition, we insist that

σ a+ σ m =117 ksi
along the load line, which therefore yields

σ a=29.03 ksi , σ m=87.97 ksi.

The resulting wire diameter is thus 0.143 in.; hence, the diameter has to increased slightly by 0.003 in. to prevent
spring solid condition.
Problem 23
A coil spring is to exert an 80 lb force at a maximum length of 3 in. and to exert a 120 lb force at a length that is 1
in. shorter. It must fit a 2-in. hole. Loading is static. Determine a satisfactory design using ASTM A227 wire with
presetting.

Because F 2=k ( x 2−x 0 ) , where x 0 is the undeformed spring length, and at another deflection x 1 we
also have F 1=k ( x 1−x 0 ), then by subtracting them we get

F 2−F 1 ( 120−80 ) lb.

k= = =40 lb./in.
x 2−x 1 1 in.
Maximum load spring can take up is not explicitly mentioned, so we have to assume that the 120 lb is the
maximum load. The maximum spring deflection is thus

120 lb.
δ= =3 in .
40 lb./in.
if the 10% clash allowance is not included. It is possible though that the spring will reach a spring-solid length, and
when that happens we don’t want to have the spring fail, so therefore we will include the 10% clash allowance for
the maximum force, which will give the maximum stress,

δ=3 in. × 1.1=3.3 in.

Because the loading is static, stress is computed using

τ=
8 FC
πd 2 (
1+
0.5
C
, )
which must be less than 0.65 Su for ASTM A227 because this material grade is a carbon steel AISI 1066. The
maximum 0.65 Su stress applies to non-austenitic ferrous alloys with presetting. Carbon steel is a ferritic steel, i.e.,
non-austenitic.
 Tensile strength of the ASTM A227 wire depends on its diameter d , but we don’t know that. We have to
assume an initial value of Su . Given the wire diameter d ranges from 0.7 to 12.7 mm, the minimum tensile
strength is

1783
=1908 MPa
0.70.190
to

1783
0.190
=1100 MPa.
12.7
Taking their average as the initial value of tensile strength: Su=1504 MPa=218.1 ksi, we thus have the
following inequality to express that the stress cannot exceed 0.65 Su

τ=
8 FC
πd 2 (
1+
0.5
C )
≤ 0.65 S u=141.8 ksi .
 F must be the largest force, which is the force at the maximum deflection including the clash allowance,
F=40 × 3.3=132 lb.
Thus we must have from the stress inequality condition above

8 ×132C
πd 2
1+ (
0.5
C )
≤141,000 ,

or

336.14 C
d 2
1+(0.5
C )
≤141,000.

The second condition is obtained from the spring constant value

Gd
40 lb./in.= 3
.
8C N
For steel alloys, G does not change with d and its typical value is 73 GPa = 10,590 ksi. Thus,

d
3
=0.0000302 .
C N
 The third condition is obtained from the statement that the spring is “to exert an 80 lb force at a
maximum length of 3 in.” Free length of the spring is

Nd +3.3 in,
where Nd is the spring solid length. So now we can write down an equation for the statement that the spring is to
exert an 80 lb force at a maximum length of 3 in.:

80
( Nd+3.3 )− ≤3,
40
that is

Nd ≤ 1.7 .
Thus we have the 3 equations (two are inequalities):

336.14 C
d 2 (
1+
0.5
C )
≤141,000 ;

d
=0.0000302;
C3 N
Nd ≤ 1.7 ,
for the 3 unknowns: d , C , N . The two inequalities can accept many possible solutions, so there is no unique
solution. To seek a solution, we have to convert them into equalities (equations). Consider their extremum
conditions:

336.14 C
d 2
1+ (
0.5
C )
=141,000 ;

d
=0.0000302;
C3 N
Nd =1.7 .
Substitute the second and third equations into the first will give

336.14 C 1+ ( 0.5
C )
=141,000 × 0.0000302×1.7 C
3

since the second and third equations give d 2=0.0302×1.7 C 3 . Thus, we have a cubic polynomial

C+ 0.5=0.02153 C 3 ,
whose roots are possible solutions. They are −6.55 ,−0.503, and 7.05. The negative solutions are not
acceptable. The mathematical structure of a spring design equation is thus a cubic polynomial of C . Thus, a
simpler mathematical structure is gained if C is known. Typically, C is between 4 and 12. Thus, C=7.05 is
tentatively acceptable.

C=7.05 is tentatively acceptable because we have to check that the spring is not going to buckle. The
spring is expected not to buckle if the condition
 Lf
<4
D
is satisfied. With C=7.05 , we have two equations:

d
=0.0106 ,
N
Nd =1.7 ,
whose solutions are d=0.134 in. and N=12.664 . The spring’s free length is thus

Nd +3.3=5 in. ,
Lf 5
while D=Cd=0.945 in.; thus, = =5.29, which is greater than 4. Therefore, the spring is expected to
D 0.945
buckle. Thus, we cannot accept the C=7.05 solution.

Given that we need to make the free length shorter, we can reduce the value of Nd . We can also reduce
the maximum stress to a value below 141 ksi. So, we can set the three equations to become

336.14 C
d 2
1+ (
0.5
C )
=120,000 ;

d
=0.0000302;
C3 N
Nd=1.5 .
Following the same solution method, we will find C=8.103 , N=9.663 , d=0.155 in. so that the free length is
now

Nd+3.3=4.8 in.
and

D=Cd=1.256 in. ;
Lf 4.8
hence, = =3.82. In this case, we can accept the solution. There is no risk of buckling. We now have to
D 1.256
check it will fit in the 2-in. hole. We have the spring lateral size equal to

D+d =1.256+0.155=1.411 in. ,

which is smaller than the 2-in. hole; thus, the spring will fit in the 2-in. hole.

We now can check whether the assumed Su=1504 MPa=218.1 ksi is consistent with the 0.155 in.
wire diameter. For such diameter, the minimum tensile strength is

140
=199.5 ksi ,
0.1550.190
218.1−199.5
which is consistent since the 199.5 ksi is the minimum value. The relative difference is =9.3 % .
199.5
Although this relative difference is sizable it is below 10%. We conclude a second iteration using the 199.5 ksi
tensile strength value is not required.

Note. If we attempt to answer this example using an iteration method, we could start with either extreme
of the 4-12 range for C . If say C=4 does not yield an acceptable answer, then we switch to C=12, and continue
to narrow down the range to C=8 . It is more efficient though to start from the middle, i.e., C=8 , and continue
the iteration either toward C=4 or C=12 if C=8 does not yield an acceptable answer. When C is guessed at,
we would need only 2 equations. One of them should be the spring constant equation. The other is most likely the
maximum stress equation. Once, N , C , d are obtained, the geometry constraint, buckling prevention, and spring
surge constraints can be checked.