CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In high performance aircrafts, spacecrafts, satellites, missiles and other aerospace

applications where size, weight, performance, ease of installation and aerodynamics profile are
the constraints, a low or flat/conformal profile antenna may be required. In recent years various
types of flat profile printed antennas have been developed such as Microstrip antenna (MSA),
strip line, slot antenna, cavity backed printed antenna and printed dipole antenna. When the
characteristics of these antenna types are compared, the micro strip antenna is found to be more
advantageous.

Microstrip antenna are conformable to planar or non planar surface, simple and
inexpensive to manufacture, cost effective compatible with MMIC designs and when a particular
patch shape and excitation modes are selected, they are very versatile in terms of resonant
frequency, polarization, radiation patterns and impedance.

In this work Design, Fabrication and Testing of linear polarized co-axial fed microstrip
rectangular patch antenna for aerospace applications is presented. Microstrip antennas have
several advantages compared to conventional microwave antennas and therefore have many
applications over the broad frequency range from 100MHz to 50GHz.

1.2 Definition of Antenna

An antenna (or aerial) is a transducer designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic

waves. In other words, antennas convert electromagnetic waves into electrical currents and vice-
versa. They are used with waves in the radio part of the electromagnetic spectrum, that is, radio
waves, and are a necessary part of all radio equipment. Antenna has many uses : communication,
radar, telemetry, navigation etc.

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 Figure 1.1 shows the output from a coherent source (e.g. an oscillator) is directed out into
free space using an antenna. The signal source is linked to the antenna by some kind of
waveguide (microwave guide, light fibre, etc).

The antenna acts as a sort of transformer. It takes the electromagnetic field pattern,
moving along the guide and transforms it into some other pattern, which is radiated out into free
space.

Figure 1.1 Schematic of an antenna system

Using this simple picture we can establish two basic properties of any antenna:

• Firstly, the antenna doesn't itself generate any power. So, unless the antenna is imperfect
and dissipates some power, the total powers carried by the guide and free space fields
must be the same. (In reality, all practical antennas tend to be slightly resistive so some
power is normally lost, but for now we can assume any loss is small enough to ignore.)

• Secondly, the antenna is a reciprocal device — i.e it behaves in the same way
irrespective of which way we pass signal power through it. This reciprocal behaviour is a
useful feature of a coherent antenna. It means that, in principle, the only real difference
between a ‘transmitting’ and a ‘receiving’ antenna is the direction we've chosen to pass
signals through it.

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 Theoretically one of the simplest types of antenna is a Hertzian Dipole of the kind
illustrated in figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Hertzian Dipole Antenna

The dipole consists of a straight piece of wire of length L with a small break at its centre.
A pair of wires are then used to connect the break to a generator which can produce a current

For the sake of simplicity we can assume that

This means that we can neglect the time it takes for any current to flow along the dipole.
We can therefore assume that the current equals I{t} everywhere along the dipole.

In reality, of course, the current would have to “come from and go somewhere” at the
wire ends since charge can't appear and vanish into/out of nothing. We can imagine two spheres
or discs placed at the ends of the wires to act as charge reservoirs. By reference to a suitable
book on electromagnetics or antennas we can discover that a wire of length L carrying a uniform
current oscillation of amplitude I0 will radiate an oscillating electric field

where, r is the radial distance from the centre of the antenna to the position where we wish to
determine the electric field; theta is the angle between the dipole wire and the line connecting the

3
point and the centre of the dipole; and lambda is the free space wavelength of the radiation. (This

result is only true for the ‘far field’ where )

1.3 Origin of Antennas

Communication is the process of transferring information from one entity to another.

Communication has existed since the beginning of human beings, but it was not until the 20th
century that people began to study the process. At first this was achieved by sound through
voice. As the distance of communicating increased, various devices were introduced, such as
drums, horns and so forth and for even greater distances visual methods were introduced such as
signal flags and smoke signals in the daytime and fireworks at night. These optical
communication devices, of course, utilize the light portion of electromagnetic spectrum. It has
only been recently in human history that the electromagnetic spectrum outside the visible region
has been employed for communication, through the use of radio.

Figure 1.2 Electromagnetic spectrum

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 The antenna is an essential component in any radio system which provides a means for
radiating or receiving radio waves that is it provides a transition from a guided wave on a
transmission line to a free-space wave.

1.4 History of Antenna Technology

The theoretical foundations for antennas rest on Maxwell’s equations. James Clark
Maxwell in 1864 presented his results before Royal Society, which showed that light and
electromagnetics were one in physical phenomenon and also predicted that light and
electromagnetic disturbances both can be explained by waves travelling at the same speed. And
in 1886 Heinrich Hertz verified the above and discovered that the electrical disturbances could
detected with a secondary circuit of proper dimensions for resonance and containing an air gap
for sparks to occur.

Guglielmo Marconi built a microwave parabolic cylinder at a wavelength of 25 cm for

his original code transmission and worked at longer wavelengths for improved communication
range. Marconi is considered as the father of amateur radio. Antenna developments in the early
years were limited by the availability signal generators. About 1920 resonant length antennas
were possible after the De Forest triode tube was used to produce continuous wave signals up to
1MHz.

At these higher frequencies antennas could be built with a physical size in resonant
region. Just before World War II microwave (about 1 GHz) klystron and magnetron signal
generators were developed along with hollow pipe waveguides. These lead to the development of
horn antennas, although Jagadish Chandra Bose in India produced the first electromagnetic horn
antenna many years earlier. The first commercial microwave radiotelephone system in 1934 was
between England and France and operated at 1.8G Hz. During the war an intensive development
effort primarily detected toward radar, spawned many modern antenna types, such as large
reflectors, lenses and waveguide slot arrays.

1.5 Basic Antenna Characteristics

An antenna is a device that is made to efficiently radiate and receive radiated

electromagnetic waves. There are several important antenna characteristics that should be

5
considered when choosing an antenna for application such as Gain, radiation pattern, bandwidth,
beam width etc., are as follows:

1.5.1 Radiation pattern

Practically any antenna cannot radiate energy with same strength uniformly in all
directions. The radiation from antenna in any direction is measured in terms of field strength at a
point located at a particular distance from antenna. Radiation pattern of an antenna indicates the
distribution of energy radiated by the antenna in the free space. In general radiation pattern is a
graph which shows the variation of actual field strength of electromagnetic field of all the points
equidistant from antenna. The two basic radiation patterns are field strength radiation pattern
which is expressed in terms of field strength E (in V/m) and power radiation pattern expressed
in terms of power per unit solid angle.

Field radiation pattern is a 3-dimensional pattern. To achieve this it requires representing

the radiation for all angles of Φ and θ which give E-plane (vertical plane) and H-plane
(horizontal plane) pattern respectively.

1.5.2 Gain

Antenna gain relates the intensity of an antenna in a given direction to the intensity that
would be produced by a hypothetical ideal antenna that radiates equally in all directions
(isotropically) and has no losses. Since the radiation intensity from a lossless isotropic antenna
equals the power into the antenna divided by a solid angle of 4π steridians, we can write the
following equation:
Gain = 4π * Radiation Intensity/Antenna Input Power

1.5.3 Directivity

The directive gain of the antenna is the measure of the concentration of radiated power in
a particular direction. It may be regarded as the ability of the antenna to direct radiated power in

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a given direction. It is usually a ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction to the average
radiation intensity. Generally D > 1,except in the case of an isotropic antenna for which D = 1.
An antenna with directivity D >> 1 is directive antenna.

1.5.4 Polarization

Polarization is the orientation of the electromagnetic waves far from the source. There are
several types of polarization that apply to antennas. They are Linear (which comprises vertical
and horizontal), oblique, Elliptical (left hand and right hand polarizations), circular (left hand and
right hand) polarizations.

1.5.5 VSWR

VSWR is the ratio of the maximum to minimum values of the "standing wave" pattern
that is created when signals are reflected on a transmission line. This measurement can be taken
using a "slotted line" apparatus that allows the user to measure the field strength in a
transmission line at different distances along the line.

The voltage standing wave ratio is a measure of how well a load is impedance-matched to
a source. The value of VSWR is always expressed as a ratio with 1 in the denominator (2:1, 3:1,
etc.) It is a scalar measurement only (no angle), so although they reflect waves oppositely, a
short circuit and an open circuit have the same VSWR value (infinity:1). A perfect impedance
match corresponds to a VSWR 1:1, but in practice you will never achieve it. Impedance
matching means you will get maximum power transfer from source to load.

1.5.6 Reflection Coefficient and Return Loss

Reflection coefficient shows what fraction of an incident signal is reflected when a

source drives a load. A reflection coefficient magnitude of zero is a perfect match, a value of
one is perfect reflection. The symbol for reflection coefficient is uppercase Greek letter gamma
(Γ). Note that the reflection coefficient is a vector, so it includes an angle. Unlike VSWR, the
reflection coefficient can distinguish between short and open circuits. A short circuit has a value
of -1 (1 at an angle of 180 degrees), while an open circuit is one at an angle of 0 degrees. Quite
often we refer to only the magnitude of the reflection coefficient.

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 Return Loss shows the level of the reflected signal with respect to the incident signal in
dB. The negative sign is dropped from the return loss value, so a large value for return loss
indicates a small reflected signal. The return loss of a load is merely the magnitude of the
reflection coefficient expressed in decibels. The correct equation for return loss is:
Return loss = -20 x log [mag(Γ)]
Thus in its correct form, return loss will usually be a positive number. If it's not, you can
usually blame measurement error. The exception to the rule is something with negative
resistance, which implies that it is an active device (external DC power is converted to RF) and it
is potentially unstable (it could oscillate).

1.5.7 Bandwidth

The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the range of frequencies within which the
performance of the antenna with respect to some characteristics conforms to a specific standard.

The reason for this qualitative definition is that all the antenna parameters are changed
with frequency and the importance of the different parameters as gain, return loss, beamwidth,
side-lobe level etc., much depends on the frequency band.

The bandwidth of an antenna for gain (-3dB from the maximum) is defined as

Bandwidth (%) = (fv-fl)*100 fc

Where fv is the upper frequency, fl is the lower frequency, and fc is the centre frequency.

1.5.8 Beamwidth

Antenna bemwidth is defined as the angle between half power point on the main beam. In
case that we have a logarithm radiation power pattern in [dB] units, it means that we measure the
angle between two 3dB points.

1.6 Types of Antennas

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 There are two fundamental types of antenna directional patterns, which, with reference to
a specific two dimensional plane (usually horizontal [parallel to the ground] or [vertical
perpendicular to the ground]), are either:

1. Omni-directional (radiates equally in all directions), such as a vertical rod (in the
horizontal plane) or
2. Directional (radiates more in one direction than in the other).

In colloquial usage "omnidirectional" usually refers to all horizontal directions with

reception above and below the antenna being reduced in favor of better reception near the
horizon. A directional antenna usually refers to one focusing a narrow beam in a single specific
direction such as a telescope or satellite dish, or, at least, focusing in a sector such as a 120°
horizontal fan pattern in the case of a panel antenna at a cell site.

The present antenna in the thesis i.e., Microstrip antenna is an omnidirectional antenna
which radiates normal to the patch surface into the upper hemisphere (180° in elevation plane)
and 360° in azimuth plane.

1.6.1 Basic Models of Antennas

There are many variations of antennas. Below are a few basic models.

• The isotropic radiator is a purely theoretical antenna that radiates equally in all
directions. It is considered to be a point in space with no dimensions and no mass. This
antenna cannot physically exist, but is useful as a theoretical model for comparison with
all other antennas. Most antennas' gains are measured with reference to an isotropic
radiator, and are rated in dBi (decibels with respect to an isotropic radiator).

• The dipole antenna is simply two wires pointed in opposite directions arranged either
horizontally or vertically, with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the other
end hanging free in space. Since this is the simplest practical antenna, it is also used as a
reference model for other antennas; gain with respect to a dipole is labeled as dBd.

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 • The Yagi-Uda antenna is a directional variation of the dipole with parasitic elements
added which are functionality similar to adding a reflector and lenses (directors) to focus
a filament light bulb.

• The random wire antenna is simply a very long (at least one quarter wavelength) wire
with one end connected to the radio and the other in free space, arranged in any way most
convenient for the space available. Folding will reduce effectiveness and make theoretical
analysis extremely difficult.

• The horn is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short (microwave) and
space is not an issue. Horns can be narrowband or wideband, depending on their shape. A
horn can be built for any frequency, but horns for lower frequencies are typically
impractical. Horns are also frequently used as reference antennas.

• The parabolic antenna consists of an active element at the focus of a parabolic reflector
to reflect the waves into a plane wave. Like the horn it is used for high gain, microwave
applications, such as satellite dishes.

• The patch antenna consists mainly of a square conductor mounted over a ground plane.
Another example of a planar antenna is the tapered slot antenna (TSA), as the Vivaldi-
antenna.

1.7 Aim and Objective of the Project:

The main aim of the project is to design an aerospace wide beamwidth rectangular
microstrip antenna for an aerospace vehicle such as a missile, satellite, aircraft etc., by using
available Microstrip substrate (printed circuit board of type FR4 with dielectric constant of 4.4
and loss tangent of 0.002 and thickness of 1.6mmof double clad copper). We calculated the
dimensions of the patch w (width) and l (length) and also theoretically calculated the antenna
bandwidth for VSWR of 2:1 at a frequency of 2250MHz in a s-band telemetry frequency. And
then we calculated the 3-dB beamwidth in principle E-plane and H-plane.

The Microstrip antenna has been designed by using the PCAD software on a computer on
a size 10cm × 10cm and h=1.6mm (thickness). The fabrication process has been done with help
of Sravanthi Electronic Industry by using the standard PCB techniques. After the fabrication we

10
decided the feed point for it to polarize linearly and then connected sub miniature type-A (SMA)
female RF connector of type radial R12540300 with the centre conductor of diameter 1.27mm.
This has been soldered on the Microstrip patch at a point where 50Ω’s impedance is achieved.
The ground plane is also soldered with the outer conductor of coaxial.

And then the centre conductor is checked to not have short circuit with the ground plane
by an ohm meter and it is found that there was no short circuit. The antenna has been tested for
impedance, band width and return loss measurement by using an automatic vector network
analyzer of type N5320 PNA-L series at Ms Advanced Communication Division, Charlapally,
Hyderabad, a sister concern of Advanced Radio Mass (ARM). The test has been conducted for
the following:

1. VSWR

2. Return Loss

3. Impedance

4. Gain

5. Radiation Pattern

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 CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA

2.1 History of Microstrip Antenna

The concept of microstrip radiators was first proposed by Deschamps as early as 1953.
The first practical antennas were developed in the early 1970’s by Howell and Munson. Since
then, extensive research and development of microstrip antennas and arrays, exploiting the new
advantages such as light weight, low volume, low cost, low cost, compatible with integrated
circuits, etc., have led to the diversified applications and to the establishment of the topic as a
separate entity within the broad field of microwave antennas.

2.2 Definition of Microstrip Antenna

A microstrip antenna in its simplest configuration consists of a radiating patch on one

side of a dielectric substrate (εr ≤ 10), which has a ground plane on the other side. The patch
conductors, normally of copper and gold, can assume virtually any shape, but conventional
shapes are generally used to simplify analysis and performance prediction. A patch antenna is a
narrowband, wide-beam antenna. Feeding in microstrip is achieved through use of coaxial line
with an inner conductor that terminates on the patch. The placement of the feed is important for
proper operation of the antenna.

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 Figure 2.1 Structure of a Microstrip Patch Antenna

2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Microstrip Antenna

Microstrip antennas have several advantages compared to conventional microwave

antennas and therefore many applications over the broad frequency range from 100MHz to
50GHz. Some of the principle advantages are:

 Light weight, low volume, low profile planar configurations which can be made
conformal:

 Low fabrication cost ; readily amenable to mass production;

 Can be made thin ; hence, they do not perturb the aerodynamics of host aerospace
vehicles;

 The antennas can be easily mounted on missiles, rockets and satellites without major
alterations;

 These antennas have low scattering cross section;

 Linear, circular (left hand or right hand) polarizations are possible with simple changes in
the feed positions;

 Dual frequency and dual polarization antennas can be easily made;

 No cavity backing required;

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  Can be easily integrated with microwave integrated circuits;

 Microstrip antennas are compatible with modular designs (solid state devices such as
oscillators, amplifiers, variable attenuators, switches, modulators, mixers etc. can be
added directly to the antenna substrate board);

 Feed lines and matching networks are fabricated simultaneously with the antenna
structure;

However, Microstrip antennas also have some disadvantages compared to conventional

microwave antennas are:

 Narrow bandwidth and associated tolerance problems;

 Loss, hence somewhat lower gain(~ 6dB);

 Large ohmic loss in the feed structure of arrays;

 Complex feed structure required for high performance arrays;

 Polarization purity is difficult to achieve;

 Extraneous radiation from feeds and junctions;

 Low power handling capability

 Excitation of surface waves

 Reduced gain and efficiency as well as unacceptably high levels of cross-polarization and
mutual coupling within an array element at high frequencies

There are ways to minimize the effect of some of the limitations. For example,

• bandwidth can be increased to more than 60%by usage of special techniques;

• lower gain and lower power handling limitations can be overcome through an array
configuration;

14
 • surface wave associated limitations poor efficiency, increased mutual coupling, reduced
gain and radiation pattern degradation can be overcome by the use of photonic band gap
structures;

2.4 Radiation Mechanism of Microstrip Antenna

The radiation from a Microstrip line, a structure similar to Microstrip antenna, can be
reduced considerably if the substrate employed is thin and has a higher relative dielectric
constant. Radiation from Microstrip antenna, on the other hand, is encouraged for better radiation
efficiency. Therefore, thick substrates with low permittivity are used in Microstrip antennas.
Radiation from Microstrip antenna can be determined from the field distribution between patch
metallization and the ground plane.

Alternatively, radiation pattern can be described in terms of surface current distribution

on the patch metallization. An accurate calculation of the field or current distribution of the patch
is very complicated. However, crude approximations and simple arguments can be used to
develop a workable model for a Microstrip antenna. Consider a Microstrip antenna that has been
connected to a microwave source. The energization of the patch will establish a charge
distribution on upper and lower surfaces of the patch, as well as on the surface of the ground
plane as shown in figure below:

Figure 2.2 Electric field distributions in microstrip cavity

The –ve and +ve nature of the charge distribution arises because the patch is about a half-
wave long at the dominant mode. The repulsive forces between like charges on the bottom

15
surface, around its edges, to its top surface. This movement of charge creates corresponding

current densities and at the bottom and top surface of the patch as shown in figure below:

Figure 2.3 Charge distribution and current density on a microstrip antenna

For most microstrip antennas, the ratio h/W is very small. Therefore, the attractive force
between the charges dominates and most of the charge concentration and the current flow remain
underneath the patch. A small amount of current flows around the edges the edges of the patch to
its top surface and are responsible for weak magnetic field tangential to the edges. Hence, we can
make a simple approximation that the magnetic field is zero and one can place magnetic walls all
around the periphery of the patch. This assumption has the greater validity for thin substrates
with high εr. Also, since the substrate used is very thin compared to the wavelength (h<<λ) in the
dielectric, the field variations along the height can be considered to be constant and electric field
nearly normal to the surface of the patch.

Consequently, the patch can be modeled as a cavity with electric walls (because the
electric field is near normal to the patch surface) at the top and below and four magnetic walls
along the edges of the patch (because the tangential magnetic field is very weak). Only TM
modes are possible in this cavity.

The four sidewalls of the cavity represent four narrow aperture or slots through which
radiation takes place. Using the Huygens field equivalent principle, the microstrip patch can be
represented by an equivalent current density at the top surface to account for the presence of

the patch metallization. The four side slots is represented by equivalent current densities and

16
 corresponding to the magnetic field and , respectively in the slots. The equivalent

currents are given by [1]:

2.5 Various Microstrip Antenna Configurations:

Microstrip antennas are characterized by large number of physical parameters than are
conventional microstrip antennas. They can be designed to have many geometrical shapes and
dimensions. All Microstrip antennas can be divided into four basic categories [1]:

1. Microstrip patch antennas

2. Microstrip dipoles
3. Printed slot antennas
4. Microstrip travelling-wave antennas.

2.5.1 Microstrip patch antenna

A Microstrip patch antenna (MPA) consists of a conducting patch of any planar geometry
on one side of dielectric substrate backed by a ground plane on the other side. There are virtually
an unlimited number of patch patterns for which radiation characteristics may be calculated. The
basic configurations used in practice are:

17
Figure 2.4 Microstrip patch antenna shapes commonly used in practice

18
 Figure 2.5 Other possible geometries of Microstrip patches

2.5.2 Microstrip or Printed Dipole Antennas

Microstrip or printed dipole differs geometrically from rectangular patch antennas in their
length-t-width ratio. The width of a dipole is typically less than 0.05λo. The radiation patterns o
the dipole and patch are similar owing to similar longitudinal current distributions. However, the
radiation resistance, bandwidth, and cross-polar radiation differ widely. These are well suited for
higher frequencies for which the substrate can be electrically thick and therefore can attain
significant bandwidth. The choice of feed mechanism is very important in the microstrip dipoles
and should be included in the analysis.

2.5.3 Printed Slot Antennas

Printed slot antennas comprise a slot in the ground plane of a grounded substrate. The slot
can have virtually any shape. Theoretically, most of the microstrip patch shapes can be realized
in the form of a printed slot. Like microstrip patch antennas, the slot antennas can be fed either
by a microstrip line or a coplanar waveguide.

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 Slot antennas are generally bidirectional radiators: that is they radiate on both ides of the
lot. Unidirectional radiation is obtained by using reflector plate on one side of the slot.

Figure 2.6 Basic printed slot antennas with feed structures

2.5.4 Microstrip Travelling-Wave Antennas

A microstrip travelling-wave antenna (MTA) may consist of chain-shaped periodic

conductors or a long microstrip line sufficient width to support a TE mode. The other end of the
traveling-wave antenna is terminated in a matched resistive load to avoid the standing wave on
the antenna.

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 Travelling- wave microstrip antennas can be designed so that the main beam lies in any
direction from broadside to endfire. Various configurations for MTAs are shown in the figure
below:

Figure 2.7 Some of printed microstrip travelling-wave antenna configurations

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 CHAPTER 3
RECTANGULAR PATCH ANTENNA

3.1 Introduction

Microstrip antennas are among the most widely used types of antennas in the microwave
frequency range, and they are often used in the millimeter-wave frequency range as well [1, 2,
3]. (Below approximately 1 GHz, the size of a microstrip antenna is usually too large to be
practical, and other types of antennas such as wire antennas dominate). Also called patch
antennas, Microstrip patch antennas consist of a metallic patch of metal that is on top of a
grounded dielectric substrate of thickness h, with relative permittivity and permeability εr and μr
as shown in Figure 3.1 (usually μr = 1). The metallic patch may be of various shapes, with
rectangular and circular being the most common, as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Rectangular & Circular Patch Antennas

Most of the discussion in this section will be limited to the rectangular patch, although
the basic principles are the same for the circular patch. (Many of the CAD formulas presented
will apply approximately for the circular patch if the circular patch is modeled as a square patch
of the same area). Various methods may be used to feed the patch, as discussed below. One
advantage of the microstrip antenna is that it is usually low profile, in the sense that the substrate
is fairly thin.

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 If the substrate is thin enough, the antenna actually becomes “conformal,” meaning that
the substrate can be bent to conform to a curved surface (e.g., a cylindrical structure). A typical
substrate thickness is about 0.02 λ0. The metallic patch is usually fabricated by a
photolithographic etching process or a mechanical milling process, making the construction
relatively easy and inexpensive (the cost is mainly that of the substrate material).

Other advantages include the fact that the microstrip antenna is usually lightweight (for
thin substrates) and durable. Disadvantages of the microstrip antenna include the fact that it is
usually narrowband, with bandwidths of a few percent being typical. Some methods for
enhancing bandwidth are discussed later. Also, the radiation efficiency of the patch antenna
tends to be lower than some other types of antennas, with efficiencies between 70% and 90%
being typical.

3.2 Basic Principles of Operation

The metallic patch essentially creates a resonant cavity, where the patch is the top of the
cavity, the ground plane is the bottom of the cavity, and the edges of the patch form the sides of
the cavity. The edges of the patch act approximately as an open-circuit boundary condition.
Hence, the patch acts approximately as a cavity with perfect electric conductor on the top and
bottom surfaces, and a perfect “magnetic conductor” on the sides. This point of view is very
useful in analyzing the patch antenna, as well as in understanding its behavior. Inside the patch
cavity the electric field is essentially z directed and independent of the z coordinate. Hence, the
patch cavity modes are described by a double index (m, n). For the (m, n) cavity mode of the
rectangular patch the electric field has the form

…………………..(3.1)
Where L is the patch length and W is the patch width. The patch is usually operated in the
(1,0) mode, so that L is the resonant dimension, and the field is essentially constant in the y
direction. The surface current on the bottom of the metal patch is then x directed, and is given
by:

………………………………..(3.2)

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 For this mode the patch may be regarded as a wide microstrip line of width W, having a
resonant length L that is approximately one-half wavelength in the dielectric. The current is
maximum at the centre of the patch, x = L/2, while the electric field is maximum at the two
“radiating” edges, x = 0 and x = L. The width W is usually chosen to be larger than the length
(W= 1.5 L is typical) to maximize the bandwidt. (The width should be kept less than twice the
length, however, to avoid excitation of the (0, 2) mode.)

It might appear that the microstrip antenna will not be an effective radiator when the
substrate is electrically thin, since the patch current will be effectively shorted by the close
proximity to the ground plane. If the modal amplitude A10 were constant, the strength of the
radiated field would in fact be proportional to h. However, the Q of the cavity increases as h
decreases. Hence, the amplitude A10 of the modal field at resonance is inversely proportional to h.
Hence, the strength of the radiated field from a resonant patch is essentially independent of h, if
losses are ignored. This explains why a patch antenna can be an effective radiator even for very
thin substrates, although the bandwidth will be small.

3.3 Resonant Frequency

The resonance frequency for the (1, 0) mode is given by

……………………….(3.3)
Where c is the speed of light in vacuum. To account for the fringing of the cavity fields at
the edges of the patch, the length, the effective length Le is chosen as
Le= L + 2ΔL
The Hammerstad formula for the fringing extension is [1]

……………………………..(3.4)
Where,

………………………(3.5)

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3.4 Radiation Patterns

The radiation field of the microstrip antenna may be determined using either an “electric
current model” or a “magnetic current model”. In the electric current model, the current in (3.2)
is used directly to find the far-field radiation pattern. Figure 3.2a shows the electric current for
the (1, 0) patch mode. If the substrate is neglected (replaced by air) for the calculation of the
radiation pattern, the pattern may be found directly from image theory. If the substrate is
accounted for, and is assumed infinite, the reciprocity method may be used to determine the far-
field pattern [5].

(a) Electric Current for (1, 0) patch

(b) Magnetic Current for (1, 0) patch

Figure 3.2 Electric & Magnetic Current Distributions
In the magnetic current model, the equivalence principle is used to replace the patch by a
magnetic surface current that flows on the perimeter of the patch. The magnetic surface current is
given by:

……………………………..(3.6)

25
 Where E is the electric field of the cavity mode at the edge of the patch and n is the
outward pointing unit-normal vector at the patch boundary. Figure 3.2b shows the magnetic
current for the (1, 0) patch mode. The far-field pattern may once again be determined by image
theory or reciprocity, depending on whether the substrate is neglected or not [4]. The dominant
part of the radiation field comes from the “radiating edges” at x = 0 and x = L. The two non-
radiating edges do not affect the pattern in the principle planes (the E plane at φ = 0 and the H
plane at φ = π/2), and have a small effect for other planes.

It can be shown that the electric and magnetic current models yield exactly the same
result for the far-field pattern, provided the pattern of each current is calculated in the presence
of the substrate at the resonant frequency of the patch cavity mode [5]. If the substrate is
neglected, the agreement is only approximate, with the largest difference being near the horizon.

According to the electric current model, accounting for the infinite substrate, the far-field
pattern is given by [5]:

…………………(3.7)

Where,

kx = k0 sinθ cosφ

ky = k0 sinθ sinφ

and Eih is the far-field pattern of an infinitesimal (Hertzian) unit-amplitude x- directed electric
dipole at the centre of the patch.

This pattern is given by [5]:

The radiation patterns (E- and H-plane) for a rectangular patch antenna on an infinite
substrate of permittivity εr = 2.2 and thickness h /λ0= 0.02 are shown in Figure 3.3.

26
 The patch is resonant with W/ L = 1.5. Note that the E-plane pattern is broader than the
H-plane pattern. The directivity is approximately 6 dB.

Figure 3.3 Simulated Radiation Pattern (E & H plane)

3.5 Radiation Efficiency

The radiation efficiency of the patch antenna is affected not only by conductor and
dielectric losses, but also by surface-wave excitation - since the dominant TM mode of the
grounded substrate will be excited by the patch. As the substrate thickness decreases, the effect
of the conductor and dielectric losses becomes more severe, limiting the efficiency. On the other
hand, as the substrate thickness increases, the surface-wave power increases, thus limiting the
efficiency. Surface-wave excitation is undesirable for other reasons as well, since surface waves
contribute to mutual coupling between elements in an array, and also cause undesirable edge
diffraction at the edges of the ground plane or substrate, which often contributes to distortions in
the pattern and to back radiation.

For an air (or foam) substrate there is no surface-wave excitation. In this case, higher
efficiency is obtained by making the substrate thicker, to minimize conductor and dielectric
losses (making the substrate too thick may lead to difficulty in matching, however, as discussed
above). For a substrate with a moderate relative permittivity such as εr = 2.2, the efficiency will
be maximum when the substrate thickness is approximately λ0 = 0.02. The radiation efficiency is
defined as

27
 Where Psp is the power radiated into space, and the total input power Ptotal is given as
the sum of Pc - the power dissipated by conductor loss, Pd- the power dissipated by dielectric
loss, and Psw - the surface-wave power. The efficiency may also be expressed in terms of the
corresponding Q factors as [6]

A plot of radiation efficiency for a resonant rectangular patch antenna with W / L = 1.5 on
a substrate of relative permittivity εr = 2.2 or εr = 10.8 is shown in Figure 2.5. The result is
plotted efficiency versus normalized (electrical) thickness of the substrate, which does not
involve frequency.

Figure 3.4 Radiation Efficiency for a rectangular patch Antenna

The conductivity of the copper patch and ground plane is assumed to be ζ = 3.0×10 7
[S/m] and the dielectric loss tangent is taken as tanδ d = 0.001. The resonance frequency is 5 GHz.
However, a specified frequency is necessary to determine conductor loss. For h / λ0 < 0.02, the
conductor and dielectric losses dominate, while for h /λ0 > 0.02, the surface-wave losses
dominate. (If there were no conductor or dielectric losses, the efficiency would approach 100%
as the substrate thickness approaches zero.)

28
3.6 Bandwidth

The bandwidth increases as the substrate thickness increases (the bandwidth is directly
proportional to h if conductor, dielectric, and surface-wave losses are ignored). However,
increasing the substrate thickness lowers the Q of the cavity, which increases spurious radiation
from the feed, as well as from higher-order modes in the patch cavity. Also, the patch typically
becomes difficult to match as the substrate thickness increases beyond a certain point (typically
about 0.05 λ0). This is especially true when feeding with a coaxial probe, since a thicker
substrate results in a larger probe inductance appearing in series with the patch impedance.
However, in recent years considerable effort has been spent to improve the bandwidth of the
microstrip antenna, in part by using alternative feeding schemes. The aperture-coupled feed of
Figure 2.2c is one scheme that overcomes the problem of probe inductance, at the cost of
increased complexity [7].

Lowering the substrate permittivity also increases the bandwidth of the patch antenna.
However, this has the disadvantage of making the patch larger. Also, because of the patch cavity
is lowered, there will usually be increased radiation from higher-order modes, degrading the
polarization purity of the radiation.

By using a combination of aperture-coupled feeding and a low-permittivity foam

substrate, bandwidths exceeding 25% have been obtained. The use of stacked patches (a parasitic
patch located above the primary driven patch) can also be used to increase bandwidth even
further, by increasing the effective height of the structure and by creating a double-tuned
resonance effect [8]. A CAD formula for the bandwidth (defined by SWR < 2.0) is

Where the terms used have been defined in the previous section on radiation efficiency.
The result should be multiplied by 100 to get percent bandwidth. Note that neglecting conductor
and dielectric loss yields a bandwidth that is proportional to the substrate thickness h.

29
 Figure 3.5 Calculated & Measured Bandwidth

Figure 2.6 shows calculated and measured bandwidth for the same patch in Figure 2.5. It
is seen that bandwidth is improved by using a lower substrate permittivity, and by making the
substrate thicker.

3.7 Input Impedance

A variety of approximate models have been proposed for the calculation of input
impedance for a probe-fed patch. These include the transmission line method, the cavity model,
and the spectral-domain method. These models usually work well for thin substrates, typically
giving reliable results for h / λ0 < 0.02.

Commercial simulation tools using FDTD, FEM, or MoM can be used to accurately
predict the input impedance for any substrate thickness. The cavity model has the advantage of
allowing for a simple physical CAD model of the patch to be developed, as shown in Figure 3.6

30
 Figure 3.6 Equivalent Circuit of Patch Antenna

In this model the patch cavity is modeled as a parallel RLC circuit, while the probe
inductance is modeled as a series inductor. The input impedance of this circuit is approximately
described by

31
 CHAPTER 4

DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR MICROSTRIP ANTENNA

This chapter deals with the procedure for practically designing a rectangular microstrip
antenna. The overall goal of a design is t achieve specific performance characteristics at a
stipulated operating frequency. The design of a rectangular microstrip antenna involves the
following process:

1. Selection of substrate and

2. Calculating length, width and feed point of the patch

3. Selection of connector

4.1 Selection of Substrate

The selection of a substrate material is a balance between the required electrical,

mechanical and environmental performance required by a design versus economic constraints.
Generally, if one has the available design volume to use air as a substrate for a Microstrip
antenna, this is a good choice. The antenna efficiency is high, the gain is maximized as is the
impedance bandwidth of a conventional Microstrip antenna. The surface wave loss when air is
used as a substrate is minimal.

When a dielectric substrate is selected, one is interested in a material with the lowest
tangent (tan δ) available. The loss tangent is a metric of the quantity of electrical energy which is
converted to heat by a dielectric. The lowest possible loss tangent maximizes the antenna
efficiency (decreases the losses).

The relative dielectric constant εr of the substrate determines the physical size of a patch
antenna. The larger the dielectric constant the smaller the element size, but also the smaller the
impedance, bandwidth and directivity and the surface wave loss increases. The use of the
substrates with higher dielectric constants also tightens fabrication tolerances.The tolerance of
the dielectric value is also of significant importance in manufacturing yield.

32
 A Monte-Carlo type analysis using the cavity model is a good method of estimating
antenna manufacturing yield for a rectangular Microstrip antenna when an etching tolerance,
substrate thickness tolerance, feed point location tolerance and dielectric tolerances are known.

Substrate electrical and physical parameters also vary with temperature. Recent work by
Kabacik and Bialkowski indicates that Teflon/Fiberglass substrates can have a significant
variation of dielectric constant for many airborne and space borne applications. The dielectric
constant and loss tangent of Teflon fiberglass often differed from what was quoted by
manufacturers in their datasheets compared with measurements and were valid over a much
narrower temperature range that encountered in many aerospace applications. The performance
variations are due to changes in the material dielectric properties–thermal expansion had a minor
effect on Microstrip antenna performance.

Generally the metal cladding to the dielectric substrate material is copper. Two types of
copper foil are used as cladding, rolled foil and electrodeposited foil. Rolled foil is passed
through a rolling mill a number of times until the desired physical dimensions are obtained and
bonded the substrate. Rolled copper has a polished mirror-like appearance. Electrodeposited foil
is created by electrodeposition of copper onto an inert form. A thin layer of copper is
continuously removed from the form then bonded to the substrate.

The computation of characteristic impedance and losses of a Microstrip transmission line

depend on the copper foil thickness. The copper cladding is described in terms of weight per
square yard. The thickness of the cladding may then be derived and is listed in the table below:

Foil weight Foil thickness

½ oz (14gms) 0.0007 in (0.01778mm)

1 oz (28gms) 0.0014 in (0.03556mm)

2 oz (57gms) 0.0028 in (0.07112mm)

4 oz (142gms) 0.0056 in (0.14224mm)

Table 4.1 Thickness of cladding for different materials

33
 Material εr Tan δ

Teflon (PTFE) 2.1 0.0005

Rexolite 1422 2.55 0.0007

Noryl 2.6 0.0011

FR4 4.1 0.02

Alumina 9.8 0.0003

Table 4.2 Dielectric and Loss tangent for different materials

Generally, dielectric constant εr and loss tangent tanδ increase with temperature . In space
applications moisture outgassing produces a lower dielectric constant and loss tangent.

Teflon (Polytetrafluoroethylene) has very desirable electrical qualities but is not

recommended for many space applications. An extensive discussion of PTFE substrates and their
fabrication may be found in the literature.

Rexolite is a very good material for space applications and has many desirable
mechanical properties. Rexolite is easily machined and its dielectric constant remains stable up
to 100 GHz.

Noryl is suitable for many commercial microwave applications. It has a much lower loss
than FR4 and is relatively cost effective, but it is soft and melts at a relatively low temperature
which can create soldering complications, and sometimes has unsuitable mechanical properties
for some applications.

FR4 is inexpensive and find use in many commercial applications below 1 GHz. The
material can be used for some wireless applications, but great care must be taken to budget and
minimize the losses when it is used as a substrate of PTFE and Epoxy glass (FR4) which has the
desirable properties of FR4 with lower loss.

Alumina has desirable microwave properties for applications which require a relatively
high dielectric constant εr ~ 10.0 and low loss tangent. Its drawbacks are the difficulty involved
in machining it and its brittleness. Alumina has good thermal conductivity and in some aerospace

34
applications it more readily dissipates heat and remains cooler than other common microwave
substrates. In some missile applications where high temperatures may compromise solder joints
alumina is a viable option for the dissipation of heat. Alumina’s dielectric constant is very
sensitive to the processing used to produce the alumina.

All substrates and laminates have different requirements for the processing. Details of
fabrication issues and methods may be found in the literature and directly from manufacturers.
Other fabrication options such as screen printing conductive inks directly on substrates have also
been investigated.

4.2 Design procedure for Rectangular Microstrip Antenna

4.2.1 Considered Values

The three essential parameters for the design of a rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna:

• Frequency of operation (fo): The resonant frequency of the antenna must be selected
appropriately. Since we developing antenna for microwave applications we choose design an
antenna in s-band which ranges from 2 GHz to 4 GHz. We designed microstrip antenna at 2.25
GHz..

• Dielectric constant of the substrate (εr): There are many dielectric substrates available
in the market having different dielectric constant and thickness. Of them RT Duroidd provides
the best results but is highly costly and hence the dielectric material selected for our design is
FR4 (Fiber-reinforced plastic) which has a dielectric constant of 4.4. This substrate is selected
since it can obtain better results and is cost effective.

• Height of dielectric substrate (h): The height of the selected dielectric material is
1.6mm which is optimal for having maximum radiation and has less leaky waves. This
provides a balance between conductor and dielectric loss and hence we choose FR4
material dielectric substrate with 1.6mm thickness.

4.2.2 Initial Design Values

There are many analysis methods for the design of antenna which are discussed later.
From them we use transmission line analysis method for our antenna.

35
Step 1: Calculation of the Width (W)

The width of the Microstrip patch antenna is given as:

…………………………… (4.1)

Where,c is velocity of light

fo is Resonant Frequency
εr is Relative Dielectric Constant

Figure 4.1 Variation of Width with Frequency

Of course other widths may be chosen but for widths smaller than those selected
according to equation (4.1), radiator efficiency is lower while for larger widths, the efficiency are
greater but for higher modes may result, causing field distortion. As a result design aid, equation

36
(4.1) is plotted for the common dielectric substrates. If other materials are employed equation
(4.1) should be used with appropriate value of εr. In this work upon Substituting
c=3.0×10^(11)mm/s, εr = 4.4 and fo = 2.25 GHz, we get:

W = 40.57 mm

Step 2: Calculating the Length (L)

Effective dielectric constant (εeff)

Once W is known, the next step is the calculation of the length which involves several
other computations; the first would be the effective dielectric constant. The dielectric constant of
the substrate is much greater than the unity, the effective value of εeff will be closer to the value
of the actual dielectric constant εr of the substrate. The effective dielectric constant is also a
function of frequency.

As the frequency of operation increases the effective dielectric constant approaches the
value of the dielectric constant of the substrate is given by:

………………….. (4.2)
In our design for the above mentioned values the effective dielectric is found to be

εeff = 4.100

Effective length ( Leff)

The effective length is:

……………………….. (4.3)

Which is found to be Leff = 32.918mm

Length Extension (∆L)

Because of fringing effects, electrically the micro strip antenna looks larger than its actual
physical dimensions. For the principle E – plane (x-y plane), where the dimensions of the path
along its length have been extended on each by a distance, ∆L, which is a function of the

37
effective dielectric constant and the width-to-height ratio (W/h).The length extension is:

..….……………………… (4.4)

Substituting εeff = 4.4, W = 40.57 mm and h = 1.6 mm we get:

∆L = 0.739 mm

Calculation of actual length of patch (L)

Because of inherent narrow bandwidth of the resonant element, the length is a critical
parameter and the above equations are used to obtain an accurate value for the patch length L.

Figure 4.2 Variation of Length with the Frequency

Fig 4.2 which is a plot of L versus frequency for the various substrates and for chosen
substrate may then be used to verify the design.

The actual length is obtained by:

38
 ………………………….. (4.5)
Substituting Leff = 34.408 mm and ∆L = 0.7391 mm we get:
L = 31.44mm
Feed Point Location

After selecting the patch dimensions L and W for a given substrate, the next task is to
determine the feed point (x, y) so as to obtain a good impedance match between the generator
impedance and the input impedance of the patch element. It is observed that the change in feed
location gives rise to a change in the input impedance and hence provides a simple method for
impedance matching.

………………….. (4.6)

From the equation (4.6) we see that if the feed is located at x = xf and 0 ≤ yf ≤ W, the
input resistance at resonance for the dominant TM10 mode can be expressed as

………………….. (4.7)
Where xf is the inset distance from the radiating edge and Rr is the radiation resistance at
resonance when the patch is fed at a radiating edge. The inset distance xf is selected such that Rin
is equal to the feed line impedance, usually taken to be 50Ω. Although the feed point can be
selected anywhere along the patch width, it is better to choose yf = W/2 if W ≥ L so that TM0n (n
odd) modes are not excited along with the TM 10 mode. Determination of the exact feed point
requires an iterative solution for equation (4.6). Equation (4.7) provides a useful guideline for
the purpose. Kara has suggested an expression for xf that does not need calculation of radiation
resistance. It is approximately given by

................................................. (4.8)

Step 3: Calculation of the Gain (G)

The gain of the micro strip antenna is given by the following formula

G= ………………..……………………. (4.9)

39
 where A = L*W = 32.93*42.45 =1397.878

………..……………………..…. (4.10)

= = 66.51 mm

By substituting the above values we get

G = 5.98 dB

Figure 4.3 Variation of Gain with the Frequency

Step 4: Calculation of the Beam Width ( )

The beam width of a micro strip element can be increased by choosing a smaller element,
thus reducing W and L. For a given resonant frequency, these dimensions may be changed by

40
selecting a substrate having a higher relative permittivity. In many applications, a decrease in
physical size is desirable.

Beam Width in H-Plane

=2 ……………………....... (4.11)

-Beam Width in H- Plane

Substituting W = 40.57 mm and we get:

= 73.65 degrees

Beam Width in E-Plane

=2 ……………………… (4.12)

-Beam Width in E- Plane

Substituting W = 40.57 mm, h=1.6mm and we get:

= 115.18 degrees

As beam width increases, element gain and consequently directivity decrease, however
the antenna efficiency remains unaffected.

Step 5: Calculation of the Band Width Percentage (BW %)

The bandwidth of the microstrip antenna gives the range of frequencies for which the
microtrip antenna works that is either transmits or receive and it s given by the following
equation:

BW = ………………………………… (4.13)

Substituting , h=1.6mm and S=2:1, εr = 4.4 we get:

BW = 0.514%

41
 Figure 4.4 Variation of Bandwidth with Frequency for different dielectric substrate antennas

4.3 Microwave Coaxial Connector

For high frequency operation the average circumference of a coaxial cable must be
limited to about one wavelength, in order to reduce multimodal propagation and eliminate erotic
reflection coefficients, power losses and signal distortion. The standardization of coaxial
connectors during World War II was mandatory for microwave operation to maintain a low
reflection coefficient or a low voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR). Since that time many
modifications and new designs for microwave connectors have been proposed and developed.
Seven types of microwave coaxial connectors are described below.

APC-3.5: The APC-3.5 (Amphenol Precision Connector-3.5mm) was originally developed by

Hewlett-Packard, but is now manufactured by Amphenol. The connector provides the repeatable
connections and has very low voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR). Either the male or female
end of this 50Ω connector can mate with the opposite type of SMA type connector. The APC-3.5
connector can work at frequencies up to 34 GHz.

42
APC-7: The APC-7 (Amphenol Precision Connector-7mm) was also developed by Hewlett-
Packard in the mid 1960s, but it was recently improved and is now manufactured by Amphenol.
The connector provides a coupling mechanism without male or female distinction and is the most
repeatable connecting device used for very accurate 50Ω measurement applications. Its VSWR is
extremely low, in the range of 1.02 to 18 GHz.

Figure 4.5 APC-7 Connector

BNC: The BNC (Bayonet Navy Connector) was originally designed for military system
applications during World War II. The connector operates very well at frequencies up to about
4GHz, beyond that it tends to radiate electromagnetic energy. The BNC can accept flexible
cables with diameters of up to 6.35mm (0.25inches) and characteristic impedance of 50 to 75Ω.
It is now the most commonly used connector for frequencies under 1 GHz.

Figure 4.6 BNC Connector

SMA: The SMA (Sub-Miniature A) was originally by Bendix Scintilla Corporation, but it has
been manufactured by Omni-Spectra Inc. (as the OSM connector) and many other electronic
companies. The main application of SMA connector is on component for microwave systems.
The connector is seldom used above 24 GHz because of higher order modes.

43
 Figure 4.7 SMA Connector

SMC: The SMC (Sub Miniature C) is a 50Ω connector that is smaller than the SMA. The
connector is manufactured by Sealectro Corporation and can accept flexible cables with
diameters of up to 3.17mm (0.125 inches) for a frequency range of up to 7 GHz.

Figure 4.8 SMC Connector

TNC: The TNC (Threaded Navy Connector) is merely a thread BNC. The function of thread is
to stop radiation at higher frequencies, so that the connector can work at frequencies up to
12GHz.

Figure 4.9 TNC Connector

Type N: The Type N (Navy) connector was originally designed or military systems during
World War II and is the most popular measurement connector for the frequency range of 1 to
18GHz. It is 50 or 75Ω connector and its VSWR is extremely low, less than 1.02.

44
 Figure 4.10 Type N Connector

Size Series Coupling Impedance Frequency VSWR Voltage

(Ω ) (GHz) (max) (V)
Subminiature SMA Screw 50 12.4/18 1.3 500
SMB Snap on 50 4 1.41 500
SMC Screw 50 10 1.6 500

Miniature BNC Bayonet 50 4 1.3 500

TNC Screw 50 11 1.3 500
SHV Bayonet NC NA 1.3 5000
BN Screw 50 0.2 1.3 200
MC Screw 50 0.5 1.3 200

Medium C Bayonet 50 11 1.35 1500

N Screw 50 11 1.3 1000
NC Screw 50 11 1.3 1000
QM Screw 50 4 1.3 5000

Large QL Screw 50 5 1.3 5000

Table 4.3 Basic Features Of the most Common Connector Series

CHAPTER 5

45
 FEEDING METHODS AND ANALYSIS OF MICROSTRIP
ANTENNA

5.1 Feed Techniques

Microstrip patch antennas can be fed by a variety of methods. These methods can be
classified into two categories- contacting and non-contacting. In the contacting method, the RF
power is fed directly to the radiating patch using a connecting element such as a microstrip line.
In the non-contacting scheme, electromagnetic field coupling is done to transfer power between
the microstrip line and the radiating patch [5]. The four most popular feed techniques used are
the microstrip line, coaxial probe (both contacting schemes), aperture coupling and proximity
coupling (both non-contacting schemes).

5.1.1 Microstrip Line Feed

In this type of feed technique, a conducting strip is connected directly to the edge of the
Microstrip patch as shown in Figure 5.1. The conducting strip is smaller in width as compared to
the patch and this kind of feed arrangement has the advantage that the feed can be etched on the
same substrate to provide a planar structure.

Figure 5.1 Microstrip Line Feed

The purpose of the inset cut in the patch is to match the impedance of the feed line to the
patch without the need for any additional matching element. This is achieved by properly

46
controlling the inset position. Hence this is an easy feeding scheme, since it provides ease of
fabrication and simplicity in modeling as well as impedance matching. However as the thickness
of the dielectric substrate being used, increases, surface waves and spurious feed radiation also
increases, which hampers the bandwidth of the antenna [5]. The feed radiation also leads to
undesired cross polarized radiation.

5.1.2 Coaxial Feed

The Coaxial feed or probe feed is a very common technique used for feeding Microstrip
patch antennas. As seen from Figure 5.2, the inner conductor of the coaxial connector extends
through the dielectric and is soldered to the radiating patch, while the outer conductor is
connected to the ground plane. The main advantage of this type of feeding scheme is that the
feed can be placed at any desired location inside the patch in order to match with its input
impedance.

Figure 5.2 Probe fed Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna

This feed method is easy to fabricate and has low spurious radiation. However, a major
disadvantage is that it provides narrow bandwidth and is difficult to model since a hole has to be

47
drilled in the substrate and the connector protrudes outside the ground plane, thus not making it
completely planar for thick substrates (h > 0.02λo). Also, for thicker substrates, the increased
probe length makes the input impedance more inductive, leading to matching problems [9]. It is
seen above that for a thick dielectric substrate, which provides broad bandwidth, the microstrip
line feed and the coaxial feed suffer from numerous disadvantages. The non-contacting feed
techniques which have been discussed below, solve these issues.

5.1.3 Aperture Coupled Feed

In this type of feed technique, the radiating patch and the microstrip feed line are
separated by the ground plane as shown in Figure 5.3. Coupling between the patch and the feed
line is made through a slot or an aperture in the ground plane. The coupling aperture is usually
centered under the patch, leading to lower cross-polarization due to symmetry of the
configuration. The amount of coupling from the feed line to the patch is determined by the shape,
size and location of the aperture

Figure 5.3 Aperture-coupled feed

. Since the ground plane separates the patch and the feed line, spurious radiation is
minimized. Generally, a high dielectric material is used for bottom substrate and a thick, low
dielectric constant material is used for the top substrate to optimize radiation from the patch [5].

48
The major disadvantage of this feed technique is that it is difficult to fabricate due to multiple
layers, which also increases the antenna thickness. This feeding scheme also provides narrow
bandwidth.

5.1.4 Proximity Coupled Feed

This type of feed technique is also called as the electromagnetic coupling scheme. As
shown in Figure 5.4, two dielectric substrates are used such that the feed line is between the two
substrates and the radiating patch is on top of the upper substrate. The main advantage of this
feed technique is that it eliminates spurious feed radiation and provides very high bandwidth (as
high as 13%) [5], due to overall increase in the thickness of the microstrip patch antenna. This
scheme also provides choices between two different dielectric media, one for the patch and one
for the feed line to optimize the individual performances.

Figure 5.4 Proximity-coupled Feed

Matching can be achieved by controlling the length of the feed line and the width-to-line
ratio of the patch. The major disadvantage of this feed scheme is that it is difficult to fabricate
because of the two dielectric layers which need proper alignment. Also, there is an increase in
the overall thickness of the antenna.

49
 Table 5.1 Characteristics of the different feed techniques.

5.2 Methods of Analysis

The preferred models for the analysis of Microstrip patch antennas are the transmission
line model, cavity model, and full wave model (which include primarily integral
equations/Moment Method). The transmission line model is the simplest of all and it gives good
physical insight but it is less accurate. The cavity model is more accurate and gives good
physical insight but is complex in nature. The full wave models are extremely accurate, versatile
and can treat single elements, finite and infinite arrays, stacked elements, arbitrary shaped
elements and coupling. These give less insight as compared to the two models mentioned above
and are far more complex in nature.

50
5.2.1 Analytical Models

There are many methods of analysis and are divided into two types-

1. Model – Based Analysis Technique

2. Full – Wave Analysis Technique

The various model – based and full – wave analysis techniques that have been used for the
analysis of the Microstrip Antenna are:

• Wire Grid Model

• Cavity Model
• Modal Dispersion Model
• Transmission Line Model
• Integral Equation Method
• Vector Potential Approach
• Dyadic Green’s Function Technique
• Radiating Aperture Method

In Wire Grid Model the antenna is modeled as a fine grid of wire segments. The
currents on the wire segments are solved using the Richmond’s reaction theorem to get all the
antenna characteristics of interest.

The Cavity Model offers both simplicity and physical insight. In this model the antenna
is treated as a cavity whose fields are computed using the full model expansions. The importance
of this model is that it includes the effects of non resonant modes.

The Modal Expansion Method is similar to cavity model but differs in impedance
boundary conditions that are imposed at the four radiating walls to obtain a solution. Though the
method does not lead to an exact solution, it provides a good insight into the physics of antenna.

The Transmission Line Model considers the antenna as two radiating slots
perpendicular to the feed line of length L. This model is easy to analyze due to its simplicity but
suffers from some disadvantages. This model is limited to square and rectangular geometries.

51
 The Integral equation method is general method and can treat patches of arbitrary
shapes including those with thick substrate. The method requires considerable analytical and
computational efforts and provides little physical insight.

In Vector Potential Approach, the field produced by a horizontal electric dipole is

determined and the antenna characteristics are then evaluated by numerical techniques. Though
the solution obtained is rigorous, it is less attractive due to lack of closed form expressions.

In Dyadic Green’s Function Method the characteristics of the micro strip antenna are
evaluated and the field from an arbitrary source distribution may be found by means of a super
position integral.

In Radiating aperture method the Vector Kirchoff relation is used. This method is
mathematically precise if the aperture fields are known exactly.

Transmission model is adapted in this work for the analysis of the rectangular microstrip
antennas and is explained in detail below.

5.2.2 Transmission Line Model

This model represents the microstrip antenna by two slots of width W and height h,
separated by a transmission line of length L. The microstrip is essentially a non-homogeneous
line of two dielectrics, typically the substrate and air. Hence, as seen from Figure 2.8, most of the
electric field lines reside in the substrate and parts of some lines in air.

Figure 5.5 Microstrip Line Figure 5.6 Electric Field Lines

52
 As a result, this transmission line cannot support pure transverse-electromagnetic (TEM)
mode of transmission, since the phase velocities would be different in the air and the substrate.
Instead, the dominant mode of propagation would be the quasi-TEM mode. Hence, an effective
dielectric constant (εreff) must be obtained in order to account for the fringing and the wave
propagation in the line. The value of εreff is slightly less then εr because the fringing fields around
the periphery of the patch are not confined in the dielectric substrate but are also spread in the air
as shown in Figure 2.8 above. The expression for εreff is given by Balanis [9]:

Where εreff = Effective dielectric constant

εr = Dielectric constant of substrate

h = Height of dielectric substrate

W = Width of the patch

Consider Figure 2.9 below, which shows a rectangular microstrip patch antenna of length
L, width W resting on a substrate of height h. The co-ordinate axis is selected such that the length
is along the x direction, width is along the y direction and the height is along the z direction.

Figure 5.7 Microstrip Patch Antenna

53
 In order to operate in the fundamental TM10 mode, the length of the patch must be slightly
less than λ/2 where λ is the wavelength in the dielectric medium and is equal to λ o/√εreff where
λo is the free space wavelength. The TM10 mode implies that the field varies one λ/2 cycle along
the length, and there is no variation along the width of the patch. In the Figure 2.10 shown
below, the microstrip patch antenna is represented by two slots, separated by a transmission line
of length L and open circuited at both the ends. Along the width of the patch, the voltage is
maximum and current is minimum due to the open ends. The fields at the edges can be resolved
into normal and tangential components with respect to the ground plane.

Figure 5.8 Top View of Antenna Figure 5.9 Side View of Antenna

It is seen from Figure 2.11 that the normal components of the electric field at the two
edges along the width are in opposite directions and thus out of phase since the patch is λ/2 long
and hence they cancel each other in the broadside direction. The tangential components (seen in
Figure 2.11), which are in phase, means that the resulting fields combine to give maximum
radiated field normal to the surface of the structure. Hence the edges along the width can be
represented as two radiating slots, which are λ/2 apart and excited in phase and radiating in the
half space above the ground plane. The fringing fields along the width can be modeled as
radiating slots and electrically the patch of the microstrip antenna looks greater than its physical
dimensions. The dimensions of the patch along its length have now been extended on each end
by a distance ΔL, which is given empirically by Hammerstad [1]:

54
The effective length of the patch is given by:

For a given resonance frequency fo, the effective length is given by:

For a rectangular Microstrip antenna, the resonant frequency for any TMmn is given by James
and Hall :

When m and n are modes along L and W respectively.

For efficient radiation, the width is given by:

55
 CHAPTER 6

FABRICATION PROCEDURE

6.1 FABRICATION PROCEDURE

The first step in the fabrication process is to generate the art work from drawings.
Accuracy is vital at this stage and depending on the complexity and dimensions of the antenna,
either full or enlarged scale artwork should be prepared on Stabiline or Rubilith film. Using the
precision cutting blade of a manually operated coordinagraph, the opaque layer of the Stabiline
or Rubylith film is cut to the proper geometry and can be removed to produce either a positive or
negative representation of the Microstrip antenna. The design dimensions and tolerances are
verified on a Cordax measuring instruments using optical scanning.

Enlarged artwork should be photo reduced using high precision camera to produce a high
resolution negative, which is later used for exposing the photo resist. The laminate should be
cleaned using the substrate manufacturer recommended procedure to insure proper adhesion of
the photo resist and the necessary resolution in the photo development process. The photo resist
is now applied to both sides of the laminate using laminator. Afterwards, the laminate is allowed
to stand to normalize to room temperature prior to exposure and development.

The photographic negative must be now held in very close contact with the polyethylene
cover sheet of the applied photo resist using a vaccum frame copy board or other technique, to
assure the fine line resolution required. With exposure to theproper wavelength light, a
polymerization of the exposed photo resist occurs, making it insoluble in the developer solution.
The backside of the antenna is exposed completely without a mask, since the copper foil is
retained to act as a ground plane.

The protective polythene cover sheet of the photo resist is removed and the antenna is
now developed in a developer which removes the soluble photo resist material. Visual inspection
is used to assure proper development. When these steps have been completed, the antenna is now
ready for etching. This is a critical step and requires considerable care so the proper etch rates are
achieved.

56
 After etching, the excess photo resist is removed using a stripping solution. Visual and
optical inspections should be carried out to insure a good product and to insure conformance
with dimensional tolerances, with final acceptance or rejection being based on resonant
frequency, radiation pattern and impedance measurement. For acceptable units the edges are
smoothened and the antenna is rinsed in water and dried.

If desired, a thermal cover bonding may be applied by placing a bonding film between
the laminates to be bonded and placing these between tooling plates. Dowel pins can be used for
alignment and the assembly is then heated under pressure until the bond line temperature is
reached. The assembly is allowed to cool under pressure below the melting point of the bonding
film and the laminate is then removed for inspection.The above procedure comprises the general
steps necessary in producing a Microstrip antenna. The substances used for the various processes
example cleaning, etching, etc., are the tools used for machining, etc., depending on the substrate
chosen. Most manufacturers provide informative brochures on the appropriate choice of
chemicals, cleaners, etchants, etc., for their substrates.

Figure 6.1 Photographic Negative Used For Fabrication Procedure

57
6.2 STEP BY STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE

DESIGN
DESIGN

MASTER
MASTER DRAWING
DRAWING

ART WORK LAY OUT

PHOTO REDUCTION

NEGATIVE DEVELOPMENT

LAMINATE CLEANING

RESIST APPLICATION

RESIST EXPOSURE

RESIST DEVELOPMENT

INSPECTION

ETCHING

BONDING

FINISHING

58
 INSPECTION

Drilling hole of diameter 1.3mm by

using precision drilling machine

SOLDERING

Checking with ohm meter for the patch

& centre conductor continuity

Visual inspection of solder point which

should be blister

Figure 6.2 Flow chart showing the fabrication process

59
 CHAPTER 7

MEASUREMENTS & TESTING

7.1 MESUREMENTS

Testing of antenna involves measurement of electrical and electromagnetic parameters.

Electrical parameters involve measurement of Return loss or VSWR, Impedance and
electromagnetic parameters involves the measurement of Gain and Radiation pattern. These
measurements have been carried out for the designed microstrip antenna.

Network Analyzer has been used to measure the return loss, VSWR and impedance
shown in figures 7.1 & 7.2. Radiation patterns and gain of the antenna at the designed frequency
are preferably done in an anechoic chamber which is explained in section 1.2.

7.2 TESTING

Here is a description of some of the components used to test various antenna parameters
Return Loss, VSWR, impedance measurements using Smith Chart has been obtained using the
Vector Network Analyzer. Radiation Patterns can be obtained using the experimental set up
containing Anechoic Chamber.

7.2.1 Network Analyzer

The testing of antenna is done using N5230A which is a Two Port Vector Network
Analyzer. The HP / Agilent N5230A PNA-L vector network analyzer provides the best
combination of speed and accuracy for measuring multi-port and balanced components such as
filters, duplexers and RF modules up to 20 GHz. A vector analyzer provides simple and
complete vector network measurements in a compact, fully integrated RF network. N5230A
vector network analyzer offers built-in source, receiver and s-parameter test set covering
frequencies from 10 MHz to 20 GHz.

The N5230A's automatic port extension feature automatically measures and corrects for
fixtures, making measurements of in-fixture devices simple and accurate. The configurable test

60
set provides access to the signal path between the internal source and the analyzer's test ports.
This option provides the capability to improve instrument sensitivity for measuring low-level
signals, to reverse the directional coupler to achieve even more dynamic range or to add
components or other peripheral instruments for a variety of applications such as high-power
measurements. The extended power range adds a 60 dB step attenuator internally to the RF
source path. This attenuator extends the source output power range to over 80 dB, allowing for
maximum flexibility when stimulating the device under test.

SPECIFICATIONS OF N5230A

• Channels : 2
• Frequency Range : 10MHz to 20GHz
• Frequency resolution : 1 Hz
• Dynamic Range : 110dB
• Source Output : -30dBm to 20dBm
• Display : Polar, Rectangular, Smith Chart

7.2.2 Elements of Network Analyzer

Figure 7.1 Major elements of Network Analyzer

61
 A Network analyzer measurement system consists of four major parts: a signal source
providing the incident signal, signal separation devices to separate the incident, reflected and
transmitted signals, a receiver to convert the microwave signals to a lower intermediate
frequency (IF) signal, and a signal processor and display section to process the IF signals and
display detected information. The receiver performs the full S-parameters.

Signal Source: The signal source (RF or microwave) produces the incident signal used to
stimulate device under test (DUT). The DUT responds by reflecting part of the incident energy
and transmitting the remaining part. By sweeping the frequency of the source the frequency
response of the device can be determined. Frequency range, frequency stability, signal purity and
output power level and level control are factors which may affect the accuracy of a measurement.
The source used for network analyzer measurements is a synthesizer, which is characterized by
stable amplitude frequency and high frequency resolution (less than 100 Hz at microwave range).

Signal Separation: The next step in the measurement process is to separate the incident,
reflected and transmitted signals. Once separated, their individual magnitude and/or phase
differences can be measured. This can be accomplished through the use of wideband directional
couplers, bridges, power splitters.

A directional coupler is a device that consists of two transmission lines that are
configured to couple energy to an auxiliary port if it goes through the main port in one direction
and not in the opposite direction. Directional couplers usually have relatively low loss in the
mainline path and present little loss to the incident power. In a directional couple structure the
coupled arm samples a signal travelling in one direction only. The coupled signal is at a reduced
level and the relative amount of reduced level is called the coupling factor. For instance a 20 dB
directional coupler means that the coupled port power level is 20 dB below the input, which is
equivalent to 1 percent of the incident power. The remaining 99 percent travels through the main
arm. The other key characteristic of a directional coupler is directivity. Directivity is defined as
the difference between a signal detected in the forward direction and the signal detected in the
reverse direction (isolation between the forward and reverse signals).

62
 The two resistor power splitter is used to sample either the incident or transmitted signal.
The input signal is split equally between the two arms, with the output signal (power) from each
arm being 6 dB below the input. A primary application of the power splitter is for producing a
measurement with a very good source match. If one side of the splitter output is taken to a
reference detector and the other side goes through the device under test to a transmission
detector, a ratio display of transmitted to incident has the effect of making the resistor in the
power splitter determine the equivalent source match of the measurement. Power splitters are
very broadband, have excellent frequency response and present a good match at the test device
input requires a directional device. Separation of the incident and reflected signals can be
accomplished using either a dual directional coupler or Splitter.

Figure 7.2 Fundamental and harmonic mixing receiver

Receiver: The receiver provides the means for converting and detecting the RF or Microwave
signals to a lower IF or DC signal. There are basically two receiver techniques used in network
analysis. The receivers are broadband tuned receivers that use either a fundamental mixing or
harmonic mixing input structure to convert RF signal to a lower frequency IF signal. The tuned
receivers provide a Narrowband pass IF filter to reject spurious signals and minimized the noise
floor of the receiver. The vector measurement systems (tuned receivers) have the highest
dynamic ranges are less suspect from harmonic and spurious responses, they can measure phase
relationships of input signals and provide the ability to make complex calibrations that lead to
more accurate measurements.

63
7.2.3 Front panel of a Network Analyzer

Figure 7.3 Network Analyzer- Front panel tour

1. The analyzer’s CRT display.

2. Begin- The Begin key simplifies measurement steps. The Begin key allows quick and
easy selection basic measurement parameters.

3. MEAS- The measure key select the measurements for each channel. The analyzer’s
measurement capabilities include transmission, reflection, power, conversion loss.

4. SOURCE- The source keys select the desired source output signal to the device under
test, for example, selecting source frequency or output power. The source keys also
control sweep time, number of points and sweep triggering.

5. CONFIGURE- The configure keys control receiver display parameters. These

parameters include receiver bandwidth and averaging, display scaling and format, marker
functions, and instrument calibration.

6. SYSTEM- The system keys control level functions. These include instrument preset,
save/recall and hard output.

64
 7. Numerical keypad- Use the number keys to enter a specific number value for a chosen
parameter. Use the ENTER key or the softkeys to terminate the numeric entry with the
appropriate units.

8. Softkeys- Softkeys are keys whose labels are determined by the analyzer’s firmware. The
labels are displayed on the screen next to the 8 blank keys next to the display screen o the
analyzer

7.2.4 Reflection Measurement

The return loss is the measure of power reflected and is related to the reflection
coefficient ‘Γ’ given by
Return Loss in dB = 20 log‌‌│Γ│

The relation between reflection coefficient and VSWR is given by

VSWR (S) = 1+│Γ│ 1+│Γ│

Network Analyzer Calibration:

An Agilent N5230C vector network analyzer is employed in the present measurements.

Before measuring the return loss of the antenna, the network analyzer should be calibrated as
explained below:

1. The terminal at the test port at which the test antenna is to be mounted is short circuited.
Now the power fed to the test port travels back through the short circuits so that there
will be no radiation at all. The reflected power will be equal to the incident power and so
the reflection coefficient is equal to 1, which in turn leads to a return loss of zero dB,
therefore, when the test port terminals are short circuited, we must get a zero dB line on
the display.

2. The terminals at the test port are now open circuited. The power fed to the test port
cannot be radiated because there is no load. So all the power reflects back. The reflection
coefficient is 1 and therefore leads to a return loss of 0 dB. Hence when the terminals at
the test port are open circuited the screen should display a 0 dB line.

65
 During short circuit of test port terminals the power reflects back with phase reversal.
During the open circuit the reflected power is in- phase with respect to the incident power. These
two settings are stored in memory and the setup is ready for practical measurements. The antenna
is then connected at the test port and the observed plot is the return loss of the antenna. The
percentage bandwidth at -10dB return loss is

% Bandwidth = (f2-f1)/fr × 100

Where (f2-f1) is the frequency band for which the return loss is less than 10 dB.

Reflection Measurement

Under Reflection measurement we measure Return Loss, VSWR and impedance.

1. Press Begin, filter and Reflection, the return loss of the antenna is displayed.

2. Press freq and then start 2 GHz to 2.5 GHz, scale, Autoscale reflection coefficient in dB
as a function of frequency is displayed. You can save and print the data observed.

3. Press Format, Line Mag, to get the absolute value of reflection coefficient as a function
of frequency is displayed.

Standing Wave Ratio and Impedance

1. Press Format, and SWR. The SWR as a function of frequency is displayed. We can save
and print the data.

2. Press Format, More format, Impedance Magnitude to get ‌│Z0│as a function of

frequency. Save and print the data.

3. Press Format and Smith Chart for getting display of the real and imaginary values of the
impedance of the impedance as a function of frequency. Set the start frequency to 2 GHz
and stop frequency to 2.5 GHz, the impedance is about 50Ω’s in the passband and then
save and print the data.

66
The results are shown below:

Figure 7.4 Plot of Return Loss measurement for resonant frequency

67
Figure 7.5 Plot of SWR for resonant frequency

68
Figure 7.6 Plot of Impedance on a Smith Chart

69
7.2.5 RADIATION PATTERN MEASUREMENTS

The radiation patterns of an antenna are usually represented graphically by plotting the
electric field of the antenna as a function of direction. This electric field strength is expressed as
 volts per meter or normalized field in dB.

A complete radiation pattern comprises the radiation for all the angles of φ and θ and
really requires three dimensional presentations. This is quite complicated. For the practical
purposes, the pattern is measured in planes of interest. Cross sections in which the radiation
patterns are the most frequently taken are the horizontal (θ =90 degrees) and vertical
(φ =constant) planes. These are called the horizontal patterns and vertical patterns respectively.
The terms commonly used are the E- plane and H-plane and they are the planes passing through
the antenna in the direction of beam maximum and parallel to the far-field E and H vectors.
These patterns are known as the ‘Principal Planes’ patterns. The radiation patterns of the antenna
are measured with the scientific Atlanta instrumentation in an anechoic chamber. The
instrumentation consists of the following four major parts as shown in below figure.

1. Transmitting System
2. Positioning and Controlling System
3. Receiving System
4. Recording System

Transmitting System:

The transmitting or source instrumentation consists primarily of the RF signal source and
associated transmitting antenna.

Signal Source: The model 2150 signal source provides RF power in the 0.1 to 18 GHz
frequency range. The control unit is located near the operator’s console. The RF oscillators are
installed in the main frame assembly which is mounted near the source antenna.

70
Source Antenna: Several types of antennas designed especially for the antenna test range can be
used. These include standard gain horns, dipoles, parabolic reflector antennas, log periodic arrays
and circularly polarized antennas depending upon the requirement.

Positioning & Controlling System:

The antenna to be tested is mounted on the turntable of the antenna test positioner. The
speed and direction of the rotation of the test antenna can be controlled from the operator’s
console by a direct current motor. A synchro transmitter is mechanically coupled to the
positioner turntable and electrically to a position indicator. The antenna test positioner is
controlled by the series 4100 positioner control unit. Electrical cables are used to supply power
from control system to test positioner.

Indicator system: A position indicator allows remote angle read out of the test positioner. The
synchro transmitter in the test positioner provides the position data to operate the position
indicator.

Receiving System:

The antenna under test usually tested in the receive mode. Therefore a receiving or
detecting system must be connected to the test antenna to convert RF signals to a low frequency
signals which can drive the pen system of pattern recorder. Thus the antenna must receive an RF
signal i.e modulated with an audio signal. The model 2150 signal source has an audio oscillator
as a standard feature. The two types of detectors commonly used for making antenna
measurements are crystal detector and Bolometer. Scientific Atlanta antenna pattern recorders
will operate crystal detectors or Bolometer detectors directly.

Antenna Pattern Recorder:

The radiation patterns of the antenna are recorded as relative amplitude and / or phase as
a function of the position (or angle). The synchro position data from the test positioner is
connected to the recorder’s chart servo system. The resultant graph is a plot of the relative
amplitude of the received signal as a function of the antenna position (or angle).

71
 ANECHOIC CHAMBER

Polarization positioner Azimuth positioner

RECEIVER
SIGNAL
SOURCE Remote
Positioner
Position
Control Unit
INDICATOR Control
SA 4110-10
Source Unit SA
control 4100
SA 2150
Position indicator
Pattern
recorder

Figure 7.7 Experimental Set Up For Plotting Radiation Pattern

72
Figure 7.8 Anechoic chambers when enclosed

Figure 7.9 Anechoic Chamber

73
Figure 7.10 Plot of Radiation pattern in E and H plane

74
7.2.6 Gain Measurement

The setup used for measurement of gain is the same as that used for radiation pattern
measurement given in figure (7.7). The gain of the antenna is measured by replacing the test
antenna with a standard antenna (horn antenna in this case) and taking the pattern of the same.
The gain is then calculated by comparing the power level differences of the test antenna with that
of the standard antenna.

Figure7.11 Gain Measurement

75
 CHAPTER 8
SIMULATING THE MICRO STRIP ANTENNA
8.1 PROGRAM IN MATLAB

8.1.1Merits of Programming

The design of the microstrip antenna involves many lengthy and tedious calculations such
as width, length, feed locations, and dimensions of the feed. As these calculations are cumber
some and time consuming when done by hand a computer programming approach is adopted to
simplify the task.

8.1.2 Program to find Width, Length & Feed Point

The width and length of the micro strip antenna are to be calculated from the
corresponding equations as given in chapter 4. The next parameter to be found is the feed point
location. In the project, the coaxial type of feed is chosen to feed the antenna. The impedance of
the feed is 50Ώ. Hence in the program the importance of the antenna is found at every point
along the length of the antenna according to the standard formulae given in the chapter 4 and the
point of feed is hence found.

Thus the program in MATLAB to find the length, width of the micro strip antenna and
also the feed location is given below. It takes the input as frequency of operation(GHz), substrate
thickness (in cm) and dielectric constant.

8.1.3 MATLAB Program

er=4.4
fr=2.25e9
rin=50
c=3e11
h=1.6
ll=0
ul=pi
i=pi/5

76
e0=8.8419e-012
m0=4*pi*1e-7
sgm=5.8*1e7
lt=0.0002
et0=120*pi
vswr=2
%ko=2pi/lam
%WIDTH OF THE ANTENNA
w=c/(2*fr)*sqrt(2/(er+1))
ereff=((er+1)/2)+((er-1)/2)*(sqrt(1/(1+(12*(h/w)))))
lam=c/fr;
lamg=lam/sqrt(ereff)
%LENGTH OF THE ANTENNA
u=(w/h)
dell=0.412*h*(ereff+0.3)*(u+0.264)/((ereff-0.258)*(u+8));
l=(lamg/2)-(2*dell)
%FEED POINT CALCULATION
k0=2*pi/lam
ans=0
for p=ll:i:ul
f=(sin(k0*w*cos(p)/2)/cos(p))^2*sin(p)^3
if p==ll
ans=ans+f
else
ans=ans+2*f
end
end
sum=i/2*ans
gl=sum/(120*pi^2)
ans1=0;
for x=ll:i:ul

77
 f1=(sin(k0*w/2*cos(x)/cos(x))^2)
f2=besselj(0,k0*l*sin(x))
f3=sin(x)^3;
f=f1*f2*f3;
if x==ll
ans1=ans1+f
elseif x==ul
ans1=ans1+f
else
ans1=ans1+2*f
end
end
gl2=1/(120*pi^22)*i/2*ans1
rin=1/(2*(gl+gl2))
y0=1/pi*cos(sqrt(50/rin))
feedpoint=1/(2*(er^0.5))
%BEAM WIDTH CALCULATION
B_H=2*cos(sqrt(1/(2+k0*w)))*(180/pi)
B_E=2*cos(sqrt(7.03/(3*k0^2*w^2+(k0*h)^2)))*(180/pi)
%DIRECTIVITY CALCULATION
gr=1/rin
dir=4*(k0*w)^2/(pi*et0*gr)
dirdb=10*log10(dir)
%RADIATION EFFICIENCY
pr3=10*k0^2*h^2*(l-l/er+(2/(5*er^2)))
x0=lam/lamg
x1=x0^2-1
x2=er-x0^2
psur1=30*pi*k0^2*er*x1
psur2=er*(1/sqrt(x1)+sqrt(x1)/x2)+k0*h*(1+er^2*x1/x2)
psur3=psur1/psur2

78
efficiency=pr3/(pr3+psur3)
efficiencyp=efficiency*100
%GAIN CALCULATION
gain=efficiency*dir
gaindb=10*log10(gain)

79
 CHAPTER 9
ANALYSIS, CONCLUSIONS & FUTURE SCOPE
9.1 ANALYSIS

This section deals with the comparing the measured values with the obtained values.
Thus we can analyze the differences between them. The comparison is as follows:

ANTENNA
MEASURED OBTAINED
PARAMETERS

Length 31.44 mm 32 mm

Width 40.57 mm 41 mm

Thickness 1.6 mm 1.6 mm

Gain 5.9 dB 4.58 dB

Bandwidth 60 MHz 53 MHz

Beam Width H- plane 76.5(degrees) 80(degrees)

Beam Width E- Plane 115.8 (degrees) 110(degrees)

Table 9.1 Comparison of Measured and Observed values

From the above we finally conclude that the measured values and the obtained values are
approximately equal. Thus this project has been carried out successfully. The efficiency can be
improved by decreasing the dielectric constant of the material. For Aerospace vehicles smaller
bandwidth is required which have been seen in the Microstrip Antenna.

80
9.2 CONCLUSION

A rectangular micro strip antenna is designed using the appropriate design formulae and
is fabricated using the quick fabrication procedure and is tested using the vector network
analyzer N5203A. The antenna design is worked out at frequency 2250MHz frequency. Even
though the antenna is desired to operate at this frequency, when tested practically it is found that,
it is resonating at 2150MHz.

The dielectric constant plays a major role in the overall performance of a patch antenna.
It affects both the width, in turn the characteristic impedance and the length resulting in an
altered resonant frequency. We have used the fiber glass substrate but the permittivity (εr) alters
from batch to batch some times even between different sheets of substrates. In addition FRP-4
has a high loss tangent and is highly frequency dependent. This has become an issue for RFID
applications above 800MHz.

The bandwidth of the patch antenna depends largely on the permittivity (εr)and thickness
of the dielectric substrate. Ideally a thick dielectric lower permittivity (εr) low insertion loss is
preferred for broad band purpose.

From the result 1 observed that the beam width of the micro strip element can be
increased by choosing a smaller element, thus reducing W and L. For the given resonant
frequency these dimensions will be changed by selecting a substrate having a higher relative
permittivity. The advantages of the micro strip antenna are that they are low cost, conformable,
light weight and low profile, while both linear and circular polarization is easily achieved. These
attributes are desirable when considering RFID RADAR systems.

This antenna material is also ideal for antenna arrays. Longer ranges, larger areas, faster
assembly line speeds will all benefit from the focused energy and directionality available through
antenna array beam forming. The print and etch process of printed circuit board is very
repeatable and highly cost effective. It eliminates the labor and the technician work required to
insure proper phase matching between elements. It also reduces energy requirements of the
system. The reduced side lobe emissions reduce false alarms, reduce interference between other
antennas and minimize emission in unwanted directions.

81
9.3 FUTURE SCOPE

The thesis provides the complete overview of Rectangular Microstrip antenna and also provides
the necessary equations to design a rectangular Microstrip antenna and also provides the
fabrication process of a rectangular Microstrip antenna. This also gives the necessary
information for choosing substrate and their properties for getting better results.

Future challenges of a Microstrip antenna are:

 Bandwidth Extension Techniques

 Control of Radiation Patterns

 Reducing Losses / increasing efficiency

 Improving feed networks

 Size reduction techniques

The band width can be increased as follows

• By increasing the thickness of the substrate

• By use of high dielectric constant of the substrate so that physical dimensions of the
parallel plate transmission line decreases.

• By increasing the inductance of the micro strip by cutting holes or slots in it.

• By adding reactive components to reduce the VSWR

In order to increase the directivity of the micro strip antennas multiple micro strip
radiators are used to cascade to form an array.

82
 REFERENCES

Books

[1] R. Garg, P. Bhartia, I. Bahl, and A. Ittipiboon, Microstrip Antenna Design Handbook,
ArtechHouse, 2001.

[2] K. F. Lee, Ed., Advances in Microstrip and Printed Antennas, John Wiley, 1997.

[3] D. M. Pozar and D. H. Schaubert, Microstrip Antennas: The Analysis and Design of
Microstrip Antennas and Arrays, IEEE Press, 1995.

[4] F. E. Gardiol, “Broadband Patch Antennas,” Artech House.

[5] S K Behera, “Novel Tuned Rectangular Patch Antenna As a Load for Phase Power
Combining” Ph.D Thesis, Jadavpur University, Kolkata.

[6] D. R. Jackson and J. T. Williams, “A comparison of CAD models for radiation from
rectangular microstrip patches,” Intl. Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Computer
Aided Design, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 236-248, April 1991.

[7] D. R. Jackson, S. A. Long, J. T. Williams, and V. B. Davis, “Computer- aided design of

rectangular microstrip antennas”, ch. 5 of Advances in Microstrip and Printed Antennas, K. F.
Lee, Editor, John Wiley, 1997.

[8] D. M. Pozar, “A reciprocity method of analysis for printed slot and slot- coupled microstrip
antennas,” IEEE Trans. Antennas and Propagation, vol. AP-34, pp. 1439-1446, Dec. 1986.

[9] C. A. Balanis, “Antenna Theory, Analysis and Design,” John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1997.

[10] H. Pues and A Van de Capelle, “Accurate transmission-line model for the rectangular
microstrip antenna,” Proc. IEE, vol. 131, pt. H, no. 6, pp. 334-340, Dec. 1984.

[11] W. F. Richards, Y. T. Lo, and D. D. Harrison, “An improved theory of microstrip antennas
with applications,” IEEE Trans. Antennas and Propagation, vol. AP-29, pp, 38-46, Jan. 1981.

83
Websites

1. http:// www.ecs.umass.edu/ece/pozar/aperture.pdf
2. http:// www.abasabs.hardvard.edu/abs/2002lnphT.43.335c
3. http:// www.mitre.org/work/tech_papers
4. http:// www.wikipedia.com
5. http:// www.mentorg.com/seamless

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