Plate Tectonics

The grand unifying theory of Geology

 Plate tectonics controles

 Distributions of geologic materials and
resources (e.g., Minerals, Energy, Water…)
 Geologic Hazards (e.g., earthquakes,
volcanoes, landslides, tsunamis…)
 Landscape features (e.g., mountain ranges,
oceanic trenches, continents, rift valleys…)
Formation of Earth
Birth of the Solar System
Nebular Theory
(pg. 24, Kehew)
 Rotating nebula contracts
 Begins to flatten and collapse
into center to form the sun.
 Clusters of asteroids
coalesced to form
planetesimals and moons
(planetary accretion) around
4.6 billion years ago (bya)
 (Meteorites are iron-rich or
rocky fragments left over
from planetary accretion)

http://www.psi.edu/projects/planets/planets.html
 Orion Nebula
www.hubblesite.org

www.geol.umd.edu/~kaufman/
ppt/chapter4/sld002.htm

www.psi.edu/projects/
planets/planets.html
Formation of the Planets
 The mass of the center Terrestrial Planets
of the solar system
began nuclear fusion to
form the sun
 The inner planets were
hotter and gas was
driven away leaving the
terrestrial planets
(Fe, O, Si, Mg…)
 The outer planets were
cooler and more
massive so they
collected and retained Gas Giants
the gasses forming the
“Gas Giants” www.amnh.org/rose/backgrounds.html
 Differentiation of the Planets
 The relatively uniform
iron-rich proto planets
began to separate into
zones of different
composition: 4.5 bya
 Heat from impacts,
pressure and
radioactive elements
cause iron (and other
heavier elements) to
melt and sink to the
center of the terrestrial
planets (Kehew Fig. 2-4) Lab. Man., Fig. 1.7a: Zones of the earth’s interior
Further Differentiation Deepest Deepest

of Earth
Mine Well

Continental
Crust
 Lighter elements such as (Silicic)

Oxygen, Silicon, and Mid-Ocean

Oceanic
Crust
Aluminum rose to form Ridge
(New Crust)
(Basalt)

a thin, rigid crust

 The crust, which was

originally thin and
basaltic (iron rich
silicate), further
differentiated to form
continental crust which
is thicker, iron poor, silica
rich and lighter
Kehew Fig. 2.5
Composition of Earth and Crust
      Change in
Element Chemical % of % of Crust Crust Due to
(Atomic #) Symbol Earth (by Weight) Differentiation
Oxygen (8) O 30 46.6 Increase
Silicon (14) Si 15 27.7 Increase 
Aluminum (13) Al <1 8.1 Increase 

Iron (26) Fe 35 5.0 Decrease 

Calcium (20) Ca <1 3.6 Increase 

Sodium (11) Na <1 2.8 Increase 

Potassium (19) K <1 2.6 Increase 

Magnesium (12) Mg 10 2.1 Decrease 

All Others   ~8 1.5  

Crust and Mantle
Lithosphere and Asthenosphere
 The uppermost mantle and
crust are rigid, solid rock
(Lithosphere)
 The rest of the mantle is soft
and solid (Asthenosphere)
 The Continental Crust
“floats” on the uppermost
mantle
 The denser, thinner
Oceanic Crust comprises
the ocean basins
Rocks and Sediment
Products of an Active Planet Crust:
Rigid,
Earth’s structure leads to Thin

intense geologic activity Mantle:

Plastic,
 Inner core: Solid iron Convecting

 Outer core: Liquid iron,

convecting (magnetic field)
 Mantle (Asthenosphere) :
Solid iron-magnesium
silicate, plastic, convecting
 Crust (Lithosphere): Rigid, thin
 O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg…
47%, 28, 8, 5, 4, 3, 3, 2
Pangea 225 million years ago

135 mya

65 mya

Today
Evidence of Continental Drift
 Glacial striations
match across
oceans

Kehew, Fig. 2.27

Evidence of Continental Drift
 Matching rock
types and
mountain ranges

Kehew, Fig. 2.27

Evidence of Continental Drift
 Fossils of land plants and animals
Evidence of Continental Drift
 Magnetic Evidence
 Reversals in Earth’s magnetic field
are recorded in newly formed rocks

Kehew, Fig. 2.7

Evidence of Continental Drift
 Age of Earth’s Oceanic Crust

Kehew, Fig. 2.32

 Lithospheric Plates

See Kehew, Figure 1.19

 The Lithosphere is broken into “plates” (7 maj., 6 or 7 min.)

 Plates that “ride around” on the flowing Asthenosphere
 Carrying the continents and causing continental drift
 Lithospheric Plates

Kehew, Fig 2.24

Three Types
of Plate
Boundaries
 Divergent
|
 Convergent
|
 Transform

See Kehew, Fig. 2.38

e.g., Pacific NW
 Divergent
Plate Boundaries
 Where plates move away from each other the
iron-rich, silica-poor mantle partially melts and
 Extrudes on to
the ocean floor
or continental
Lithosphere Lithosphere
crust Simplified
Asthenosphere Block
 Cool and Diagram
solidify to form
Basalt: Iron-Rich, Silica-Poor, Dense Dark,
Fine-grained, Igneous Rock
 Characteristics of
Divergent Plate Boundaries
 Divergent Plate Boundary
 Stress New Oceanic Crust
Forming at Mid-Ocean Ridge
 Earthquakes
 Volcanism Shallow Fissure
Earthquakes Eruptions
 Rocks Ocean
Basa lt ic Crust
 Features n s e,
ark, De
nt
D veme
c P l a te Mo Magma
Lithosphere i th o spheri Generation
L

Asthenosphere

an
See tlKehew,
e rock Fig. d but soft)
(soli2.29
Welling up of hot m
 Characteristics of
Divergent Plate Boundaries
 Divergent Plate Boundary
 Stress: Tensional  extensional strain
 Volcanism: non-explosive, fissure eruptions,
basalt floods
 Earthquakes: Shallow, weak
 Rocks: Basalt
 Features: Ridge, rift, fissures Ocean
ic Crust
Magma
Generation
Locations of Divergent Plate Boundaries
Mid-Ocean Ridges (Mid-Arctic Ridge)

 East Pacific Rise

 Mid Atlantic Ridge

 Mid Indian Ridge

Mid-Atlantic Ridge
 Mid Arctic Ridge
ise

Mid-
Fig. 1.10
East Pacific R

nd I
ian
Rid
ge

See Kehew, Figure 2.24

Divergent Plate Boundaries
Rifting and generation of shallow earthquakes (<33km)
0
33
70
0
30
150
70

150
300

300

500

500

800
Depth
(km)
 E.g., Red Sea and
East African Rift Valleys
 Fig. 19.21
 Fig. 19.22
Thinning crust, basalt
Rift
floods, long lakes
Valley
Shallow
Earthquakes

Linear sea, uplifted

and faulted margins Rift
Valley

Oceanic Crust Passive continental

See Kehew, Figure 2.33
shelf and rise
 Convergent
Plate Boundaries
 Where plates move toward each other, oceanic
crust and the underlying lithosphere is subducted
beneath the other plate (with either oceanic crust or
continental crust)
 Wet crust is partially melted to form silicic (Silica-
rich, iron-poor, i.e., granitic) magma
 Stress: Compression Oceanic Trench
 Earthquakes
Plate Movement Volcanic Arc
 Volcanism
Lithosphere Lithosphere
 Rocks Subducted Magma
Generation
 Features Plate Simplified
Shallow and Deep Block
Asthenosphere Earthquakes Diagram
 Convergent Plate Boundary
e.g., Pacific Northwest
 Volcanic Activity
 Explosive, Composite
Volcanoes (e.g., Mt. St. Helens)
 Arc-shaped mountain ranges
 Strong Earthquakes
 Shallow near trench
 Shallow and Deep over
subduction zone
 Rocks Formed
 Granite (or Silicic)
 Iron-poor, Silica-rich
 Less dense, light colored
 Usually intrusive: Cooled slowly, deep down, to form large crystals and
course grained rock
The “Ring of Fire” (e.g., current volcanic activity)
A ring of convergent plate boundaries on the Pacific Rim

 New Zealand Aleutia

n
 Tonga/Samoa Island
Arc

sc nge
Isls
Fujiyama

e
 Philippines

ad
C Ra
ese
es.

a
an
 Japanese Isls.

lipin
Jap
Sia

Phil
Pinatubo
 Aleutian Island arc rra
Ma
dre
and Trench

Rise
Ind

cific
 Cascade Range on
es

tains
t Pa
ia

Sierra Madre

Ea s


Moun
 Andes Mtns. an
d

Andes
l
Z ea
w
Ne
 Also: Himalayans
to the Alps
Composite Volcanic Arcs (Granitic, Explosive)
Basaltic Volcanism (Non-Explosive)
Depth of Earthquakes
at convergent plate boundaries
0
Seismicity of the Pacific Rim 1975-1995
33
70
150
 Shallow quakes at
the oceanic trench
300
(<33km)

 Deep quakes over 500

the subduction zone
(>70 km)

800
Depth
(km)
 Major Plates and Boundaries

See Kehew, Figure 2.24

 Each major plate caries a continent except the Pacific Plate.
 Each ocean has a mid-ocean ridge including the Arctic Ocean.
 Divergent bounds beneath E. Africa, gulf of California
 The Pacific Ocean is surrounded by convergent boundaries.
 Also Himalayans to the Apls
Divergent Plate Boundaries
Rifting and Formation of new Basiltic Oceanic Crust

Oceanic Crust* Iceland

 Thin (<10 km) Etna

 Young (<200my) Visuvius

Re a
 Iron Rich (>5%) /

Se
d
Gulf of

an
Aden

Afric
Silica Poor (~50%)

Rift

Mi d
East
Mid-Atlantic Ridge

-Ind
Kilimanjaro
 Dense (~ 3 g/cm3)

ia
n Ri
dg e
 Low lying (5-11 km
deep)
 Formed at Divergent Plate
Boundaries
*Make a “Comparison Composite Volcanic Arcs (explosive)
Table” on a separate page Basaltic Volcanism (non-explosive)
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Formation of Granitic Continental Crust
Oceanic Crust
 Thin (<10 km)
 Young (<200 my)
 Iron Rich (~5%) /
Silica Poor (~50%)
 Dense (s.g. ~3 x H2O)
 Low lying (5-11 km deep)
 Formed at Divergent Plate
Boundaries
Continental Crust
 Thick (10-50 km)
 Old (>200 m.y. and up to 3.5 b.y.)
 Iron Poor (<1%) /
Silica Rich (>70%)
 Less Dense (~ 2.5 g/cm3)
 High Rising
(mostly above see level)
 Formed at Convergent Plate
Boundaries
Isostatic Adjustment
 Why do we see,
at the earths surface,
 Intrusive igneous rocks and
 Metamorphic rocks
 Formed many km deep?
 Thick, light continental crust
buoys up even while it erodes
 Eventually, deep rocks are
exposed at the earth’s surface
 Minerals not in equilibrium
weathered (transformed) to clay
 Sediments are formed
The Hydrologic Cycle
Works with
Plate-Tectonics to
 Shape the land
 Weathering
clay, silt, sand…
 Erosion
 Transport
 Sedimentation
 Geologic Se
e Ke
Materials he
w
 Sediments Fig
.2
.45
 Sedimentary
Rocks
 The 3 rock types form at
convergent plate boundaries
 Igneous Rocks: When rocks
melt, Magma is formed, rises,

cks
cools and crystallizes.

o
ry R
 Sedimentary Rocks: All rocks

enta
weather and erode to form
sediments (e.g., gravel, sand,

Sedim
silt, and clay). When these
Metam
sediments accumulate they are orph
Rocks ic
compressed and cemented Igneous
(lithified) Rocks
 Metamorphic Rocks: When Magma
rocks are compressed and
heated but not melted their
minerals re-equilibrate
(metamorphose) to minerals
stable at higher temperatures and
pressures See Kehew, Figure 2.34
The
Rock
Cycle

See Kehew, Fig. 2.53

 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
at Divergent Boundaries and
Passive Margins
 Igneous Rocks (basalt)
are formed at divergent
plate boundaries and
Mantle Hot Spots. New
basaltic, oceanic crust is
generated at divergent
plate boundaries.
 Sedimentary Rocks are
formed along active and
passive continental
margins from sediments
shed from continents
 Sedimentary Rocks are formed on continents where a basin forms
and sediments accumulate to great thicknesses. E.g., adjacent to
mountain ranges and within rift valleys.
See Kehew, Figure 2.30
“Continental Accretion”
How continents are built
 The Ancestral
Atlantic Ocean
looked like today’s
Pacific
~500 mya
 Island Arcs
 Oceanic Trenches
 Bounding Continents
 Convergent
Boundaries ~400 mya
 Cause new terrains to
collide and
 be accreted to the old
continental Cratons
“Continental Accretion”
How continents are built
 Mountains are built during
accretion
 Rocks are folded (bent) and
faulted (broken and shifted)
~350 mya
 Volcanoes continue to form
 Rocks are metamorphosed in the
Cores Mountains
 Weathering and Erosion of ~300 mya
Mountains
 Sediments are shed and
 Lithified to produce ~250 mya
 A venire of Sedimentary rocks
Rock Types of Continents
Rock Types of Continents

 Metamorphic  Igneous  Sedimentary

 Formed by intense  Magma intruded  Weathered and
pressure and heat into cores of eroded mountains
 Deep within mountains shed sediments
mountain cores  Lava extruded at  Covering the
 Exposed by isostacy volcanoes continental interior
and erosion with a venire of
sedimentary rocks
Rock Types of Continents

A B
Virginia / Penn. Ohio Michigan Canada
 Deciphering the Geology of Ohio
Using Steno’s Principles

Sandstone

Shale
Limestone
 By characterizing the
sequence of sedimentary
rocks found in Ohio, we can
decipher the geologic
history preserved in the
rocks using the basic
principles of geology
 Deciphering the Geology of Ohio
Using Steno’s Principles (~1650s)


 Uniformitarianism

 Original Horizontality

 Original Continuity

 Superposition

Sandstone Shale Limestone

 Sedimentary Rocks of Ohio
Demonstrate the Use of Steno’s principles
 Generalized sequence of rocks and ages in
millions of years

Sandstone
350
Shale
380
Limestone
450
 Principle of Uniformitarianism
 Principle of Original Horizontality
 Principle of Original Continuity
 Principle of Superposition
 Sedimentary Rocks of Ohio
 Uplift during the Tertiary period (26 mya)
Erosion

Sandstone
350
Shale
380
Limestone
450

Regional Uplift
 Sedimentary Rocks of Ohio
 Exposed older rocks in central and western Ohio
Erosion

Sandstone
350
Shale
380
Limestone
450

Regional Uplift
 Sedimentary Rocks of Ohio
 Forming the Findley Arch (with east flank in eastern Ohio)
Erosion

Sandstone
350
Shale
380
Limestone
450

Regional Uplift
 Sedimentary Rocks of Ohio
 And the pattern of rocks found across Ohio
Erosion

Sandstone
350
Shale
380
Limestone
450
Regional Uplift
 Sedimentary Rocks of Ohio
 The oldest rocks are found in southwestern Ohio
(along the axis of the Findley Arch) Erosion

Sandstone
350
Shale
380
Limestone
450
Regional Uplift
 Sedimentary Rocks of Ohio

Sandstone
350
Shale
380
Limestone
450
 Sedimentary Rocks of Ohio

Sandstone
350
Shale
380
Limestone
450
 Sedimentary Rocks of Ohio

Sandstone
350
Shale
380
Limestone
450
 Sedimentary Rocks of Ohio

Sandstone
350
Shale
380
Limestone
450
 Sedimentary Rocks of Ohio
Sandstone Shale Limestone

Sandstone
350
Shale
380
Limestone
450
 Sedimentary Rocks of Ohio
Sandstone Shale Limestone

Sandstone
350
Shale
380
Limestone
450
 Sedimentary Rocks of Ohio
Sandstone Shale Limestone
(325 my) (400 my)

Thus rocks are

younger and change
lithology (rock type)
as you go west or
east from Ottawa
County
The Geologic Record in the Rocks

Sandstone
Shale

Limestone

Gneiss Granite
Relative Age and the “Principles”
 Uniformitarianism  Lateral continuity
 Superposition  Cross cutting
 Original horizontality relationships
 Inclusions

Sandstone
Shale

Limestone

Gneiss Granite Gabbro

See Figure 8.1 – 8.12

 1. Regional Uplift,
Formation of Tilting, or folding)
causes Erosion
Unconformities 2. Erosion surface
indicates gap in
geologic record

Sandstone 350
Shale 380
Limestone Gneiss (1,500) Granite (280)
450
Gabbro (790)

240
million years ago
 1. Regional Uplift,
Formation of an Tilting (or folding),
Erosion
Angular Unconformity 2. Erosion surface,
gap in geologic
record
3. Continuous
Sedimentation

Sedimentation (e.g., clay)

Sandstone 350
Shale 380
Gneiss (1,500) Granite (280)
Limestone 450 Gabbro (790)

220
million years ago
 1. Regional Uplift,
Formation of an Tilting (or folding),
Erosion
Angular Unconformity 2. Erosion surface,
gap in geologic
record
3. Continuous
Sedimentation

Sedimentation (e.g., lime mud)

Shale (220)
Sandstone 350
Shale 380
Gneiss (1,500) Granite (280)
Limestone 450 Gabbro (790)

210
million years ago
 1. Regional Uplift,
Formation of an Tilting (or folding),
Erosion
Angular Unconformity 2. Erosion surface,
gap in geologic
record
3. Continuous
Sedimentation

Sedimentation (e.g., quartz sand)

Limestone
(210)
Shale (220)
Sandstone 350
Shale 380
Gneiss (1,500) Granite (280)
Limestone 450 Gabbro (790)

200
million years ago
 1. Regional Uplift,
Formation of an Tilting (or folding),
Erosion
Angular Unconformity 2. Erosion surface,
gap in geologic
record
3. Continuous
Sedimentation
Quartz Sandstone
Sedimentation (e.g., immature sand)
(200)
Limestone
(210)
Shale (220)
Sandstone 350
Shale 380
Gneiss (1,500) Granite (280)
Limestone 450 Gabbro (790)

190
million years ago
 1. Regional Uplift,
Formation of an Tilting (or folding),
Erosion
Angular Unconformity 2. Erosion surface,
gap in geologic
record
3. Continuous
Sedimentation
Quartz Sandstone Arkose
(200) (190)
Limestone
(210)
Shale (220)
Sandstone 350
Shale 380
Gneiss (1,500) Granite (280)
Limestone 450 Gabbro (790)

180
million years ago
 1. Regional Uplift,
Formation of an Tilting (or folding),
Erosion
Angular Unconformity 2. Erosion surface,
gap in geologic
record
3. Continuous
Sedimentation
Quartz Sandstone Arkose 4. Sedimentation
(200) (190) ceases
Limestone
(210)
Shale (220)
Sandstone 350
Shale 380
Gneiss (1,500) Granite (280)
Limestone 450 Gabbro (790)

170
million years ago
 1. Erosion of horizontal beds
Formation of a
Disconformity

Quartz Sandstone Arkose Erosion

(200) (190)
Limestone
(210)
Shale (220)
Sandstone 350
Shale 380
Gneiss (1,500) Granite (280)
Limestone 450 Gabbro (790)

160
million years ago
 1. Erosion of horizontal beds
Formation of an 2. Loss of geologic record
(i.e., Arkose)
Disconformity 3. Formation of a horizontal
erosion surface

Quartz Sandstone Arkose Erosion

(200) (190)
Limestone
(210)
Shale (220)
Sandstone 350
Shale 380
Gneiss (1,500) Granite (280)
Limestone 450 Gabbro (790)

150
million years ago
 1. Erosion of horizontal beds
Formation of an 2. Loss of geologic record
(i.e., Arkose)
Disconformity 3. Formation of a horizontal
erosion surface
4. Renewed Sedimentation

Quartz Sandstone Arkose

(200) (190) Sedimentation (e.g., reef)
Limestone
(210)
Shale (220)
Sandstone 350
Shale 380
Gneiss (1,500) Granite (280)
Limestone 450 Gabbro (790)

140
million years ago
 1. Erosion of horizontal beds
Formation of an 2. Loss of geologic record
(i.e., Arkose)
Disconformity 3. Formation of a horizontal
erosion surface
4. Renewed Sedimentation

Quartz Sandstone Arkose

(200) (190) Limestone (140)
Limestone
(210)
Shale (220)
Sandstone 350
Shale 380
Gneiss (1,500) Granite (280)
Limestone 450 Gabbro (790)

130
million years ago
 1. Erosion of horizontal beds
Formation of an 2. Loss of geologic record
(i.e., Arkose)
Disconformity 3. Formation of a horizontal
erosion surface
4. Renewed Sedimentation

Quartz Sandstone Arkose

(200) (190) Limestone (140)
Limestone
(210)
Shale (220)
Sandstone 350
Shale 380
Gneiss (1,500) Granite (290)
Limestone 450 Gabbro (790)

120
million years ago
  Deciphering Relative
Summary: Types of Ages
Unconformities  Principles give
sequences of geologic
events
 Unconformities
indicate gaps in the
Limestone geologic record
Quartz
Disconformity
Sandstone
Limestone Angular
Shale Unconformity

Sandstone
Shale Gneiss Granite
Limestone Gabbro
Nonconformities
The Grand Staircase

 Correlation
 Physical Continuity
 Similar Rock Types
 Fossils (index and assemblage)