Nonlinear Elasticity

Nonlinear Elasticity
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Outline
• Some basics of nonlinear elasticity

• Nonlinear elasticity of biopolymer
networks
• Nematic elastomers

What is Elasticity
• Description of distortions of rigid bodies

and the energy, forces, and fluctuations
arising from these distortions.
• Describes mechanics of extended
bodies from the macroscopic to the
microscopic, from bridges to the
cytoskeleton.

Classical Lagrangian Description
x′ R(x′)
x
R(x)
R(x) = x + u(x)
Reference material in D Material distorted to new
dimensions described by positions R(x)
a continuum of mass
∂Ri
points x. Neighbors of Λiα = = δiα + ηiα
points do not change ∂x α
under distortion Cauchy deformation tensor
ηiα = ∂ αui
Linear and Nonlinear Elasticity
Linear: Small deformations – Λ near 1
Nonlinear: Large deformations – Λ >>1
Why nonlinear?
• Systems can undergo large deformations – rubbers,
polymer networks , …
• Non-linear theory needed to understand properties of
statically strained materials
• Non-linearities can renormalize nature of elasticity
• Elegant an complex theory of interest in its own right
Why now:
• New interest in biological materials under large strain
• Liquid crystal elastomers – exotic nonlinear behavior
• Old subject but difficult to penetrate – worth a fresh look
Deformations and Strain
Complete information about shape of body in R(x)= x +u(x);
u= const. – translation no energy.
No energy cost unless u(x) varies in space.
For slow variations, use the Cauchy deformation tensor
Λiα = δiα + ∂ αui = δiα + ηiα
d 3R = det Λ d 3x

det Λ = 1 : No volume change

Λ−1/ 2 0 0 
 

Λ= 0 Λ−1/ 2 0  Λ
 
 0
 0 Λ
−1/2
Volume preserving stretch along z-axis Λ
Simple shear strain Constant Volume, but note
stretching of sides
Note: Λ is not symmetric
originally along x or y.
1 Λ

Λ =  
0 1 
 1 0
 Rotate
Λ =  
 Λ 1
Not equivalent to

Pure Shear
Pure shear: symmetric deformation tensor with unit
determinant – equivalent to stretch along 45 deg.
 1 + Λ2 Λ 
 
Λ =  
 Λ
 1 + Λ2 

Pure shear as stretch
x ′ ∂Ri ∂Ri ∂Rj′ ∂x ′β
1  1 1  x  x  Λiα = =
 =   y  ≡ U y  ∂xα ∂Rj′ ∂x ′β ∂x α
 y′   
2  −1 1     
 
= U ijT Λ′j βU βα
Λ ′ = U ΛU T

 1 + Λ2 + Λ 0 
= 
 0 1 + Λ2 − Λ 
 

Pure to simple shear
 cos θ sin θ   1 + Λ2 Λ 
Λ=   
 − sin θ cos θ  Λ
 1 + Λ2  Λ
 tan θ =
1 + Λ2
 1 + 2Λ 2 2Λ 1 + 2Λ 2 
= 
 0 (1 + 2Λ 2 )−1 / 2 
 

Cauchy Saint-Venant Strain
R=Reference space
T=Target space
dR 2 − dx 2 = 2uαβdx αdx β
∂Ri
Λiα = = δiα + ηiα
uαβ is invariant under rotations ∂x α
in the target space but
u = 21 (ΛT Λ − δ) ≈ 21 (η + ηT )
transforms as a tensor under
rotations in the reference
space. It contains no (
uαβ = 21 ∂ αu β + ∂ βuα + ∂ αuk ∂ αuk )
information about orientation Symmetric!
of object.
Elastic energy
The elastic energy should be invariant under rigid rotations
in the target space: if is a function of uαβ.
F = ∫ d xf (uαβ )
1 D
2
= ∫ d x[Kαβγδ uαβ uγδ + σαβ uαβ ]

1 D
2
This energy is automatically invariant under rotations in

target space. It must also be invariant under the point-
group operations of the reference space. These place
constraints on the form of the elastic constants.
Note there can be a linear “stress”-like term. This can
be removed (except for transverse random components)
by redefinition of the reference space
Elastic modulus tensor
Kαβχδ is the elastic constant or elastic modulus tensor.
It has inherent symmetry and symmetries of the
reference space.
Kαβγδ = K γδαβ = K βαγδ = Kαβδγ
Isotropic system
Kαβγδ = λδ αβ δ γδ + µ (δ αγ δ βδ + δ αδ δ βδ )
Uniaxial (n = unit vector along uniaxial direction)
Kαβγδ = C 1nα n β nγ nδ + C 2 (nα n β δ γδT + nγδ n β δαβ
T
)
+ C 3δ αβ
T
δ γδT + 21 C 4 (δ αγT δ βδ
T
+ δ αδ
T T
δ βγ ) +
+ 14 C 5 (nα nγ δ βδ
T
+ nα nδ δ βγ
T
+ n β nδ δ αγ
T
+ n β nγ δ αδ
T
)

Isotropic and Uniaxial Solid
Isotropic: free energy density f has
two harmonic elastic constants
f = f (Λ) = f (U ΛV ) −1 Invariant under

−1 R(x) → UR(Vx)
f = f (u ) = f (V uV )
µ = shear modulus;
2 2
2
= 21 Buαα + µTru 2 − C Tru 3 + D (Tru ) B = bulk modulus
Uniaxial: five harmonic elastic constants Invariant under

f = 21 C 1uzz2 + C 2uzz uνν + 21 C 3uνν
2
R(x) → UR(Vuni x)
2
+ C 4uντ + C 5uν2z ;
xα = (xν , x z )
Force and stress I
fi = ∂ασ iα F ext = ∫ d D x fiui = − ∫ d D x σ iα ∂α ui
external force density – vector in target space. The
stress tensor σiα is mixed. This is the engineering or 1st
Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor = force per area of
reference space. It is not necessarily symmetric!
δF ∂f δuαβ (x ′)
− = ∫ d x′
D
= fi = −∂ α σiα
δui (x) ∂uαβ (x ′) δui (x)
δuαβ (x ′) ∂f II
= 21 (Λiα ∂ β′ + Λiβ ∂ α′ )δ(x − x ′) σiα = Λiβ ≡ Λiβ σβα
δui (x) ∂u βα
σαβII is the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor - symmetric

Note: In a linearized theory, σiα = σiαII
Cauchy stress
The Cauchy stress is the familiar force per unit area in the
target space. It is a symmetric tensor in the target space.
∂
∇i ≡
∫ ∫
d I d C
d x σ ∂ u
iα α i
= d R σij
∇ u
j i ∂Ri
d d R = det Λ d d x ∂ ∂Ri ∂
∂α = = = Λiα ∇i
∂x α ∂x α ∂Ri
C 1 I T 1 II
σ =
ij
σiα Λα j = Λiα σαβ ΛTα j
det Λ det Λ

C 1 Symmetric as required
σ = Λσ II ΛT
det Λ


Coupling to other fields
We are often interested in the coupling of target-space vectors
like an electric field or the nematic director to elastic strain.
How is this done? The strain tensor uαβ is a scalar in the
target space, and it can only couple to target-space scalars,
not vectors.
Answer lies in the polar decomposition theorem
Λ = Λ(ΛT Λ)−1/ 2 (ΛT Λ)1/ 2 ≡ ΘM 1/ 2

T −1/ 2
M = Λ Λ = (δ + 2u ); Θ = ΛM

OOT = ΛM −1/ 2 (ΛM −1/ 2 )T = ΛM −1/ 2M −1/ 2 ΛT = Λ(ΛT Λ)−1 ΛT = δ

M is symmetric and depends on u only.

O is an orthogonal, unimodular rotation matrix

Target-reference conversion
The rotation matrix O converts target-space

vectors Ei to reference-space vectors Eα and vice-versa
Ei = OiαEα ; Eα = OαTi Ei
If Λ is symmetric, Οiα = δiα .

Oiα ≈ δiα + 21 (∂ αui − ∂iuα )
≈ δiα − εiαk Ωk
To linear order in u, Oiα has a term proportional to the

antisymmetric part of the strain matrix.

Strain and Rotation
Symmetric Simple Shear

Rotation
shear
is a reference space vector; it is equal to the

n
target space vector that is obtained when Λ is
symmetric

Sample couplings
Coupling of electric field to strain
uαβ EαEβ = EiOiαuαβOβTj E j ≡ vij Ei E j
OuOT = 21 Λ(ΛT Λ)−1/ 2 (ΛT Λ − δ)(ΛT Λ)−1/ 2 ΛT

= 21 (ΛΛT − δ) = v

Free energy no longer depends on the strain uαβ only.
The electric field defines a direction in the target
space as it should
f T = f (u ) − gEi E j vij ∂Ri ∂Ri ∂x β′
Λiα = = = Λi′β Λ0 βα
∂x α ∂x β′ ∂x α
Energy depends on
both symmetric and Λ′iα = δ iα + ηi′α
anti-symmetric parts
of η’
Biopolymer Networks
cortical actin gel neurofilament network

Characteristics of Networks
• Off Lattice
• Complex links, semi-flexible rather than
random-walk polymers
• Locally randomly inhomogeneous and
anisotropic but globally homogeneous
and isotropic
• Complex frequency-dependent rheology
• Striking non-linear elasticity

Goals
• Strain Hardening (more resistance to
deformation with increasing strain) –
physiological importance
• Formalisms for treating nonlinear
elasticity of random lattices
– Affine approximation
– Non-affine

Different Networks
Strain stiffening of semiflexible biopolymer networks
Max strain
1000
Collagen ~.25 except for
vimentin and
polyacrylamide
NF
(Pa)
100 Vimentin
Max stretch:
plat
Actin
G or G'
Fibrin
L(Λ)/L~1.13
NF at 45 deg to
10 normal
0.01 0.1 1
Strain

Semi-microscopic models
Random or periodic
crosslinked network: Elastic
energy resides in bonds
(links or strands)
connecting nodes
Rb = separation of nodes in bond b

Vb(| Rb |) = free energy of bond b
nb = Number of
F = ∑Vb (Rb ) = N V (R) R0
b
bonds per unit
volume of
F
f = = nb V (R)
R0
reference lattice
V
Affine Transformations
Reference network: Strained target network:

Positions R0 Ri=ΛijR0j
F Λ = O(ΛT Λ)1/ 2 = O(1 + 2u )1/ 2
f = = nb V (ΛR 0 )
V R0 O = Λ(ΛT Λ)−1/ 2 : Orthogonal

Depends only on uij | ΛRb0 |=| (1 + 2u )1/ 2 Rb0 |

Example: Rubber
3 R2 Purely entropic force
V (R) = T
2 Nb 2
3 T T 1
F = nb V (ΛR) = 2
R 0
Λ ΛR 0 = Tnb TrΛT Λ
R
2 Nb R0
2
3  3R 2  1
P (R) = exp −  R0iR0 j = δij Nb 2
2πNb 2
 2Nb 
2 3
R02 = Nb 2
Average is over the end-to-end separation in a
random walk: random direction, Gaussian magnitude

Rubber : Incompressible Stretch
1 T 1
f = Tnb TrΛ Λ = Tnb Tr(1 + 2u )

2 2
Unstable: nonentropic forces between atoms needed to
stabilize; Simply impose incompressibility constraint.
Λ−1/ 2 0 0 
 

Λ= 0 Λ−1/ 2 0 
 
 0
 0 Λ
1  2 2
f =nbT Λ + 

2  Λ
Rubber: stress -strain
∂ ∂(ARLR f ) ∂f
fz = (V
f)= = AR AR= area in
∂L ∂ΛLR ∂Λ reference space
fz ∂f  1
Engineering stress σ =e
= = nT Λ − 2 
AR ∂Λ  Λ 
Physical Stress fz ∂f  2 1
σ= =Λ = nT Λ − 
A = AR/Λ = Area A ∂Λ  Λ
in target space
σ nT  2 1 
Y = = (1 + γ ) −  ~ 3nT
Y=Young’s modulus γ γ  1+ γ

General Case
e ∂f (ΛR 0 )i
Engineering σ = = n V '(ΛR 0 ) R0 j
stress: not
ij
∂Λij | ΛR 0 |
symmetric R0
(ΛR 0 )i
= n τi (ΛR 0 )R0 j = n τ(ΛR 0 ) R0 j
| ΛR 0 |
e ref

σijdS j = σijdS j dV (R)
Central force τ (R ) =
dSi = det Λ Λ−ji 1dS jref dR
Physical n τ(ΛR 0 )
Cauchy Stress: σij = Λik R0k Λ jl R0l
det Λ | ΛR 0 |
Symmetric R0

Semi-flexible Stretchable Link
L0 dRz
R [ t, v ] ≡ L = ∫ 0
ds
ds
L0
≈ ∫ ds v 1 − 21 | t⊥ |2 
0
2
| t(s ) |= 1; t(s ) = (t⊥ (s ), 1− | t⊥ (s ) | )
dR dR t = unit tangent
= v(s )t(s ) =v
ds ds v = stretch
1  dt⊥ 
2 
H = ∫ ds κ   + v τ | t |2 +K (v − 1)2 
2   ds  ⊥ 
 
Length-force expressions
L(τ,K) = equilibrium length at given τ and K
 τ
L(τ, K ) = 1 +  L0[1 − g(ϕ(τ, K ))];
 K
1 L ∞
1
1 2
g(ϕ) = 2 | t⊥ | = 2 0
∑ 2
π Lp n =1 n + ϕ
;
L0 π ϕ coth(π ϕ ) − 1
= 2
Lp πϕ
L20  τ κ
ϕ(τ, K ) = τ 1 +  ; Lp =
κπ 2  K kBT

Force-extension Curves

Scaling at “Small” Strain
Theoretical curve:
calculated from
zero parameter fit to everything
K-1=0
G'/G' (0)
Strain/strain8

What are Nematic Gels?
• Homogeneous Elastic media with

broken rotational symmetry
(uniaxial, biaxial)
• Most interesting - systems with
broken symmetry that develops
spontaneously from a
homogeneous, isotropic elastic
state

Examples of LC Gels
1. Liquid Crystal Elastomers - Weakly crosslinked
liquid crystal polymers
Nematic Smectic-C
2. Tanaka gels with hard-rod
dispersion
3. Anisotropic membranes
4. Glasses with orientational order

Properties I
• Large thermoelastic effects - Large
thermally induced strains - artificial muscles
Courtesy of
Eugene Terentjev
300% strain

Properties II
Large strain in small
temperature range
Terentjev

Properties III
• Soft or “Semi-soft” elasticity
Vanishing xz shear modulus
Soft stress-strain for stress Warner Finkelmann

perpendicular to order
Model for Isotropic-Nematic trans.
2 2
f = Bu
1
2
2
αα + µTru − C Tru + D (Tru
2 3
)
uαβ = uαβ − 13 δαβu γγ
µ approaches zero signals a transition to a nematic state with a

nonvanishing
(
uαβ = S nαn β − 13 δαβ )

Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
Phase transition to anisotropic
state as µ goes to zero
u0 = 1
2 (Λ
T
0 Λ0 − δ )
Λ0 = δ + 2u 0 Direction of n0 is
arbitrary
u αβ = u 0αβ Symmetric-
Traceless
= Ψ(nα0n β0 − 13 δαβ ) part uαα ~ Ψ 2
Strain of New Phase
Ri (x) = Λ0ij x j + δui (x) u’ is the strain relative
to the new state at
= x i′ + ui′(x′) points x’
∂Ri ∂Ri ∂x k′
Λij = = = Λik′ Λ0kj
∂x j ∂x k′ ∂x j
δu = u − u 0 δu is the deviation of
the strain relative to the
= 21 (ΛT Λ − ΛT0 Λ0 ) original reference frame R
from u0
T
= Λ0 u ' Λ0

δu is linearly proportional
u ' = 2 (Λ′ Λ′ − δ ) ≈ 2 (η ′ + η ′ ) to u’
1 T 1 T

Elasticity of New Phase
Rotation of anisotropy
direction costs no energy
Λ20||
r=
Λ20⊥
u ' = (Λ )T −1
0 (V u 0V −1
− u0 )Λ −1
0 u 'xz ~
(r − 1)
θ
4 r
1 − cos 2θ 1
r sin 2θ 
  C5=0 because of
= 4 (r − 1) 1
1
 rotational
 r sin 2θ − r (1 − cos 2θ )
1
invariance
fel = 21 C 1uzz′2 + C 2uzz′ uνν
′ + 21 C 3uνν
′ uνν
′ This 2nd order expansion
is invariant under all U
′ uντ
+ C 4uντ ′ + C 5uz′νuz′ν
but only infinitesimal V
Soft Extensional Elasticity
1 − cos 2θ 1
r sin 2θ 
 
u = 4 (r − 1) 1
1

 r sin 2θ − r (1 − cos 2θ )
1
1
uzz = − uxx Strain uxx can be converted to a
r zero energy rotation by
1 developing strains uzz and uxz
uxz = uxx (r − 1 − 2uxx ) until uxx =(r-1)/2
2r
Frozen anisotropy: Semi-soft
System is now uniaxial – why not simply use uniaxial elastic
energy? This predicts linear stress-stain curve and misses
lowering of energy by reorientation:
2 2
+ C 4uντ + C 5uν2z
Model Uniaxial system:
Produces harmonic uniaxial f h (u ) = f (u ) − huzz
energy for small strain but has
nonlinear terms – reduces to f (u) : isotropic
isotropic when h=0
 −2uxz uxx − uzz 
′
Rotation u → u = u + θ   

uxx − uzz 2uxz 

f h (u ′) = f (u ) − h(uzz + 2θuxz )
Semi-soft stress-strain
Ward Identity
df h
= −2huxz = 2σxz (uxx − uzz ) + 2(σzz − σxx )uxz
dθ
(σxx − h )uxz
σxz = ⇒ uxz = 0 or σxx = h
uxx − uzz
h
∂f
σαβ =
∂uαβ
Second Piola-Kirchoff
stress tensor.

Semi-soft Extensions
Break rotational symmetry
Stripes form in real
systems: semi-soft, BC
Not perfectly soft because of residual

anisotropy arising from crosslinking in
the the nematic phase - semi-soft.
length of plateau depends on magnitude
of spontaneous anisotropy r.
Warner-Terentjev
Note: Semi-softness
only visible in
Finkelmann, et al., J. Phys. II 7, 1059 (1997);
Warner, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 47, 1355 (1999) nonlinear properties
Softness with Director
Nα= unit vector along uniaxial direction in reference space;
layer normal in a locked SmA phase
n α = (nν , nz ) nν2 = 1 − (N α ⋅ nα )2 ≡ cν2 ; uzz = N α uαβ N β , etc.

Red: SmA-SmC transition

2 2
+ C 4uντ + λ1nν2uzz
+ C 5uν2z + D2nνnz uνz + 21 D1nν2 + 14 gnν4 + λ2nν2u ττ + "
= 21 C 1uzz2 + C 2uzz uνν + 21 C 3uνν
2 2
+ C 4uντ
+ 21 D1[nν + (D2 / D1 )uνz ]2 + [C 5 − 21 (D22 / D1 )]uν2z
2
R 1 D2
C5 = C5 − = 0 ⇒ Soft
Director relaxes to zero 2 D1

Nonlinear Elasticity

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Nonlinear Elasticity

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Nonlinear Elasticity

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

• Some basics of nonlinear elasticity

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

• Description of distortions of rigid bodies

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

= ∫ d x[Kαβγδ uαβ uγδ + σαβ uαβ ]

This energy is automatically invariant under rotations in

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

f = f (Λ) = f (U ΛV ) −1 Invariant under

Uniaxial: five harmonic elastic constants Invariant under

σαβII is the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor - symmetric

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Λ = Λ(ΛT Λ)−1/ 2 (ΛT Λ)1/ 2 ≡ ΘM 1/ 2

Ei = OiαEα ; Eα = OαTi Ei

If Λ is symmetric, Οiα = δiα .

To linear order in u, Oiα has a term proportional to the

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Symmetric Simple Shear

is a reference space vector; it is equal to the

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

cortical actin gel neurofilament network

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Rb = separation of nodes in bond b

Reference network: Strained target network:

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

• Homogeneous Elastic media with

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

4. Glasses with orientational order

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Vanishing xz shear modulus

Soft stress-strain for stress Warner Finkelmann

µ approaches zero signals a transition to a nematic state with a

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Not perfectly soft because of residual

n α = (nν , nz ) nν2 = 1 − (N α ⋅ nα )2 ≡ cν2 ; uzz = N α uαβ N β , etc.

f = 21 C 1uzz2 + C 2uzz uνν + 21 C 3uνν

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

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