Modern Physics by Imran Aziz

Modern Physics
MOHAMMAD IMRAN AZIZ

Assistant Professor
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
SHIBLI NATIONAL COLLEGE, AZAMGARH (India).
aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in
Relativity in Classical
Physics
• Galileo and Newton dealt with the
issue of relativity
• The issue deals with observing nature
in different reference frames, that is,
with different coordinate systems
• We have always tried to pick a
coordinate system to ease calculations
Relativity and Classical
Physics
• We defined something called an
inertial reference frame
• This was a coordinate system in
which Newton’s First Law was valid
• An object, not subjected to forces,
moves at constant velocity (constant
speed in a straight line) or sits still
Relativity and Classical
Physics
• Coordinate systems that rotate or
accelerate are NOT inertial reference
frames
• A coordinate system that moves at
constant velocity with respect to an
inertial reference frame is also an
inertial reference frame
Moving Reference Frames
• While the motion of a dropped coin
looks different in the two systems,
the laws of physics remain the same!
Classical Relativity
• The relativity principle is that the
basic laws of physics are the
same in all inertial reference
frames
• Galilean/Newtonian Relativity rests
on certain unprovable assumptions
• Rather like Euclid’s Axioms and
Postulates
Classical Assumptions
• The lengths of objects are the same
in all inertial reference frames
• Time passes at the same rate in all
inertial reference frames
• Time and space are absolute and
unchanging in all inertial reference
frames
• Masses and Forces are the same in
all inertial reference frames
Measurements of Variables
• When we measure positions in different inertial
reference frames, we get different results
• When we measure velocities in different inertial
reference frames, we get different results
• When we measure accelerations in different
inertial reference frames, we get the SAME
results
• The change in velocity and the change in time
are identical
• Since accelerations and forces and
time are the same in all inertial
reference frames, we say that
Newton’s Second Law, F = ma
satisfies the relativity principle
• All inertial reference frames are
equivalent for the description of
mechanical phenomena
• Think of the constant acceleration
situation
Changing to a new moving
1 2
x=x0+v0t+ a
coordinate system means
t we just need to change the
initial values. We make a
2 “coordinate
transformation.”
v=v0+a
t
The Problem!!!
• Maxwell’s Equations predict the velocity
of light to be 3 x 108 m/s
• The question is, “In what coordinate
system do we measure it?”
• If you fly in an airplane at 500 mph and
have a 200 mph tailwind in the jet
stream, your ground speed is 700 mph
• If something emitting light is moving at
1 x 108 m/s, does this means that that
particular light moves at 4 x 108 m/s?
The Problem!!
• Maxwell’s Equations have no way to
account for a relative velocity
• They say that
c =1 / εµ
• Waves in water move through
0 0 a
medium, the water
• Same for waves in air
• What medium do EM waves move in?
The Ether
• It was presumed that the medium in which light
moved permeated all space and was called the
ether
• It was also presumed that the velocity of light
was measured relative to this ether
• Maxwell’s Equations then would only be true in
the reference frame where the ether is at rest
since Maxwell’s Equations didn’t translate to
other frames
The Ether
• Unlike Newton’s Laws of Mechanics,
Maxwell’s Equations singled out a unique
reference frame
• In this frame the ether is absolutely at rest
• So, try an experiment to determine the
speed of the earth with respect to the ether
• This was the Michelson-Morley Experiment
Michelson-Morley
• Use an interferometer to measure
the speed of light at different times
of the year
• Since the earth rotates on its axis
and revolves around the sun, we
have all kinds of chances to observe
different motions of the earth w.r.t.
the ether
Michelson-Morley
We get an interference
pattern by adding the
horizontal path light to the
vertical path light.
If the apparatus moves w.r.t.
the ether, then assume the
speed of light in the
horizontal direction is
modified. Then rotate the
apparatus and the fringes will
shift.
Michelson-Morley
• Calculation in the text
• Upshot is that no fringe shift was seen so the
light had the same speed regardless of
presumed earth motion w.r.t. the ether
• Independently, Fitzgerald and Lorentz proposed
length contraction in the direction of motion
through the ether to account for the null result
of the M-M experiment
• Found a factor that worked
• Scientists call this a “kludge” 2 2
−
1v/c
Einstein’s Special Theory
• In 1905 Einstein proposed the solution
we accept today
• He may not even have known about the
M-M result
• He visualized what it would look like
riding an EM wave at the speed of light
• Concluded that what he imagined
violated Maxwell’s Equations
• Something was seriously wrong
Special Theory of Relativity
• The laws of physics have the same
form in all inertial reference frames.
• Light propagates through empty
space (no ether) with a definite
speed c independent of the speed of
the source or observer.
• These postulates are the basis of
Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity
Gedanken Experiments
• Simultaneity
• Time Dilation
• Length Contraction (Fitzgerald &
Lorentz)
Simultaneity
Simultaneity
Simultaneity
• Time is NOT absolute!!
Time Dilation
Time Dilation
Time Dilation
Clocks moving relative to an observer are measured by that

observer to run more slowly compared to clocks at rest by an
amount
2 2
−
1v/c aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in
Length Contraction
• A moving object’s length is measured
to be shorter in the direction of
motion by an amount
2 2
1 −v/c
Wave-Particle Duality
• Last time we discussed several
situations in which we had to conclude
that light behaves as a particle called
a photon with energy equal to hf
• Earlier, we discussed interference and
diffraction which could only be
explained by concluding that light is a
wave
• Which conclusion is correct?
• The answer is that both are correct!!
• How can this be???
• In order for our minds to grasp concepts we
build models
• These models are necessarily based on
things we observe in the macroscopic world
• When we deal with light, we are moving into
the microscopic world and talking about
electrons and atoms and molecules
• There is no good reason to expect that
what we observe in the microscopic world
will exactly correspond with the
macroscopic world
• We must embrace Niels Bohr’s Principle of
Complementarity which says we must use
either the wave or particle approach to
understand a phenomenon, but not both!
• Bohr says the two approaches
complement each other and both are
necessary for a full understanding
• The notion of saying that the energy
of a particle of light is hf is itself an
expression of complementarity since
it links a property of a particle to a
wave property
Wave -Particle Duality
• Why must we restrict this principle to
light alone?
• Might microscopic particles like
electrons or protons or neutrons
exhibit wave properties as well as
particle properties?
• The answer is a resounding YES!!!
Wave Nature of Matter
• Louis de Broglie proposed that
particles could also have wave
properties and just as light had a
momentum related to wavelength, so
particles should exhibit a wavelength
related to momentum
h
λ=
mv
• For macroscopic objects, the
wavelengths are terrifically short
• Since we only see wave behavior
when the wavelengths correspond to
the size of structures (like slits) we
can’t build structures small enough
to detect the wavelengths of
macroscopic objects
• Electrons have wavelengths
comparable to atomic spacings in
molecules when their energies are
several electron-volts (eV)
• Shoot electrons at metal foils and
amazing diffraction patterns appear
which confirm de Broglie’s
hypothesis
• So, what is an electron? Particle? Wave?
• The answer is BOTH
• Just as with light, for some situations we
need to consider the particle properties of
electrons and for others we need to consider
the wave properties
• The two aspects are complementary
• An electron is neither a particle nor a wave,
it just is!
Electron Microscopes
Models of the Atom
• It is clear that electrons are
components of atoms
• That must mean there is some
positive charge somewhere inside
the atom so that atoms remain
neutral
• The earliest model was called the
“plum pudding” model
Plum Pudding Model
We have a blob of positive charge

and the electrons are embedded in
the blob like currants in a plum
pudding.
However, people thought that the
electrons couldn’t just sit still inside
the blob. Electrostatic forces would
cause accelerations. How could it
work?
Rutherford Scattering
• Ernest Rutherford undertook experiments
to find out what atoms must be like
• He wanted to slam some particle into an
atom to see how it reacted
• You can determine the size and shape of an
object by throwing ping-pong balls at the
object and watching how they bounce off
• Is the object flat or round? You can tell!
• Rutherford used alpha particles which are the
nuclei of helium atoms and are emitted from some
radioactive materials
• He shot alphas into gold foils and observed the
alphas as they bounced off
• If the plum pudding model was correct, you would
expect to see a series of slight deviations as the
alphas slipped through the positive pudding
• Instead, what was observed was
alphas were scattered in all
directions
• In fact, some alphas scattered
through very large angles, coming
right back at the source!!!
• He concluded that there had to be a
small massive nucleus from which
the alphas bounced off
• He did a simple collision model
conserving energy and momentum
• The model predicted how many
alphas should be scattered at each
possible angle
• Consider the impact parameter
• Rutherford’s model allowed calculating the
radius of the seat of positive charge in
order to produce the observed angular
distribution of rebounding alpha particles
• Remarkably, the size of the seat of
positive charge turned out to be about 10-
15
meters
• Atomic spacings were about 10-10 meters
in solids, so atoms are mostly empty
space
From the edge of the atom, the nucleus

appears to be 1 meter across from a
distance of 105 meters or 10 km.
Translating sizes a bit, the nucleus
appears as an orange viewed from a
distance of just over three miles!!!
This is TINY!!!
Rutherford assumed the electrons must

be in some kind of orbits around the
nucleus that extended out to the size of
the atom.
Major problem is that electrons would be
undergoing centripetal acceleration and
should emit EM waves, lose energy and
spiral into the nucleus!
Not very satisfactory situation!
Light from Atoms
• Atoms don’t routinely emit
continuous spectra
• Their spectra consists of a series of
discrete wavelengths or frequencies
• Set up atoms in a discharge tube and
make the atoms glow
• Different atoms glow with different
colors
Atomic Spectra
• Hydrogen spectrum has a pattern!
Atomic Spectra
• Balmer showed that the relationship
is
1 11 
= 2 −  =
λ
R fo
r n 3,4,5,.
.
2n 2
Atomic Spectra
• Lyman Series 1 11 
= − =
λ
R f
o
rn2,
3,4
,.
.

• Balmer Series 1
2 2
1n
11
=2− =
λ
R f
o
rn3,
4,5
,.
.
• Paschen Series 
2n 
2
111
= − =
λ
R f
o
rn4,
5,6
,.
.
 
2 2
3n
Atomic Spectra
• Lyman Series 1 11 
= −  =
λ
R f
o
rn 2,
3,4,.
.
2 2
• Balmer Series 1 111n

= 2−  =
λ
R f
orn3,4,
5,.
.
 
• Paschen Series1 
2
2n
11 
= 2−  =
λ
R fo
rn 4,
5,6,
.
.
• So what is going on
3here???
2
n
• This regularity must have some

fundamental explanation
• Reminiscent of notes on a guitar
string
Atomic Spectra
• Electrons can behave as waves
• Rutherford scattering shows tiny nucleus
• Planetary model cannot be stable classically
• What produces the spectral lines of isolated
atoms?
• Why the regularity of hydrogen spectra?
• The answers will be revealed next time!!!
Summary of 2 nd
lecture
• electron was identified as particle emitted in photoelectric
effect
• Einstein’s explanation of p.e. effect lends further credence
to quantum idea
• Geiger, Marsden, Rutherford experiment disproves
Thomson’s atom model
• Planetary model of Rutherford not stable by classical
electrodynamics
• Bohr atom model with de Broglie waves gives some
qualitative understanding of atoms, but
– only semiquantitative
– no explanation for missing transition lines
– angular momentum in ground state = 0 (1 )
– spin??
Outline
• more on photons
– Compton scattering
– Double slit experiment
• double slit experiment with photons and
matter particles
– interpretation
– Copenhagen interpretation of quantum
mechanics
• spin of the electron
– Stern-Gerlach experiment
– spin hypothesis (Goudsmit, Uhlenbeck)
• Summary
Photon properties
• Relativistic relationship between a particle’s

momentum and energy: E2 = p2c2 + m02c4
• For massless (i.e. restmass = 0) particles
propagating at the speed of light: E2 = p2c2
• For photon, E = hν = ħω
• angular frequency ω = 2πν
• momentum of photon = hν /c = h/λ = ħk
• wave vector k = 2π/λ
• (moving) mass of a photon: E=mc2 ⇒ m = E/c2
m = hν /c2 = ħω/c2
Compton scattering 1
Scattering of X-rays on free
• Expectation from classical
electrons;
Electrons supplied by graphite electrodynamics:
target; – radiation incident on
Outermost electrons in C loosely
bound; binding energy << X ray free electrons ⇒
energy electrons oscillate at
⇒ electrons “quasi-free” frequency of incident
radiation ⇒ emit light of
same frequency ⇒ light
scattered in all
directions
– electrons don’t gain
energy
– no change in frequency
of light
Compton scattering
Compton (1923) measured intensity of
2
scattered X-rays from solid target, as
function of wavelength for different
angles. Nobel prize 1927.
X-ray source
Collimator Crystal
(selects (selects
angle) wavelength
)
θ
Target
Result: peak in scattered radiation shifts to

longer wavelength than source. Amount depends
on θ (but not on the target material).
A.H. Compton, Phys. Rev. 22 409 (1923)
• Classical picture: oscillating electromagnetic field causes
oscillations in positions of charged particles, which re-radiate in all
directions at same frequency as incident radiation. No change in
wavelength of scattered light is expected
Incident light wave Oscillating electron Emitted light wave
• Compton’s explanation: collisions between particles of light (X-

ray photons) and electrons in the material
Before After pν ′
scattered photon
Incoming photon
θ
pν
Electron
pe
aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in scattered electron
Before After pν ′
scattered photon
Incoming photon
θ
pν
Electron
pe scattered electron
Conservation of energy Conservation of momentum

hˆ
hν + me c = hν ′ + ( p c + m c
2 2 2
e e )
2 4 1/ 2
pν = i = pν ′ + pe
λ
From this derive change in wavelength:
h
λ′ − λ = ( 1 − cos θ )
me c
= λc ( 1 − cos θ ) ≥ 0
h
λc = Compton wavelength = = 2.4 × 10 −12 m
me c
• unshifted peaks come

from collision between the
X-ray photon and the
nucleus of the atom
• λ ’ - λ = (h/mNc)(1 - cosθ )
≈ 0
since mN >> me
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY OF LIGHT
• Einstein (1924) : “There are therefore now two theories of light,
both indispensable, and … without any logical connection.”
• evidence for wave-nature of light:
– diffraction
– interference
• evidence for particle-nature of light:
– photoelectric effect
– Compton effect
• Light exhibits diffraction and interference phenomena that are
only explicable in terms of wave properties
• Light is always detected as packets (photons); we never observe
half a photon
• Number of photons proportional to energy density (i.e. to square of
electromagnetic field strength)
Double slit experiment
Originally performed by Young (1801) to demonstrate the wave-
nature of light. Has now been done with electrons, neutrons, He
atoms,…
Alternative
method of
y detection: scan
a detector
across the plane
d and record
number of
arrivals at each
point
Detecting
screen
D
Expectation: two peaks for particles, interference pattern for waves

Fringe spacing in double slit experiment
Maxima when: d sin θ = nλ

D >> d ⇒ use small angle
approximation
nλ y
θ≈
d
λ d
⇒ ∆θ ≈ θ
d d sin θ
Position on screen: y = D tan θ ≈ Dθ
So separation between adjacent D
maxima:
∆y ≈ D∆θ
λD
⇒ ∆y =
d
Double slit experiment -- interpretation
• classical:
– two slits are coherent sources of light
– interference due to superposition of secondary waves on screen
– intensity minima and maxima governed by optical path differences
– light intensity I ∝ A2, A = total amplitude
– amplitude A at a point on the screen A2 = A12 + A22 + 2A1 A2 cosφ,
φ = phase difference between A1 and A2 at the point
– maxima for φ = 2nπ
– minima for φ = (2n+1)π
– φ depends on optical path difference δ: φ = 2πδ/λ
– interference only for coherent light sources; two
independent light sources: no interference since not coherent
(random phase differences)
Double slit experiment: low intensity
– Taylor’s experiment (1908): double slit experiment with very
dim light: interference pattern emerged after waiting for few
weeks
– interference cannot be due to interaction between photons, i.e.
cannot be outcome of destructive or constructive combination
of photons
– ⇒ interference pattern is due to some inherent property of
each photon – it “interferes with itself” while passing from
source to screen
– photons don’t “split” – light detectors always show signals of
same intensity
– slits open alternatingly: get two overlapping single-slit
diffraction patterns – no two-slit interference
– add detector to determine through which slit photon goes: ⇒
no interference
– interference pattern only appears when experiment provides
no means of determining through which slit photon passes
• double slit experiment with very low
intensity , i.e. one photon or atom at a
time:
get still interference pattern if we wait
long enough
Double slit experiment – QM
interpretation
– patterns on screen are result of distribution of photons

– no way of anticipating where particular photon will strike
– impossible to tell which path photon took – cannot assign specific
trajectory to photon
– cannot suppose that half went through one slit and half through other
– can only predict how photons will be distributed on screen (or over
detector(s))
– interference and diffraction are statistical phenomena associated with
probability that, in a given experimental setup, a photon will strike a
certain point
– high probability ⇒ bright fringes
– low probability ⇒ dark fringes
Double slit expt. -- wave vs
wave quantum
quantum theory
theory
• pattern of fringes: • pattern of fringes:
– Intensity bands due to – Intensity bands due to
variations in square of variations in
amplitude, A2, of probability, P, of a
resultant wave on photon striking points
each point on screen on screen
• role of the slits:
– to provide two • role of the slits:
coherent sources of – to present two
the secondary waves potential routes by
that interfere on the which photon can pass
screen from source to screen
double slit expt., wave
function
light intensity at a point on screen I depends on number of photons striking the point
–
number of photons ∝ probability P of finding photon there, i.e I ∝ P = |ψ|2, ψ = wave function
– probability to find photon at a point on the screen : P = |ψ|2 = |ψ1 + ψ2|2 = |ψ1|2 + |ψ2|2 + 2 |ψ1|
|ψ2| cosφ;
– 2 |ψ1| |ψ2| cosφ is “interference term”; factor cosφ due to fact that ψs are complex functions
– wave function changes when experimental setup is changed
• by opening only one slit at a time
• by adding detector to determine which path photon took
• by introducing anything which makes paths distinguishable
Waves or Particles?
• Young’s double-slit
diffraction experiment
demonstrates the
wave property of light.
• However, dimming
the light results in
single flashes on the
screen representative
of particles.
Electron Double-Slit
Experiment
• C. Jönsson (Tübingen,
Germany, 1961) showed
double-slit interference
effects for electrons by
constructing very narrow
slits and using relatively
large distances between
the slits and the
observation screen.
• experiment demonstrates
that precisely the same
behavior occurs for both
light (waves) and electrons
(particles).
Results on matter wave interference
Neutrons, A
Zeilinger et al.
Reviews of Modern
Physics 60 1067-
1073 (1988)
He atoms: O Carnal and J

Mlynek Physical Review Letters
66 2689-2692 (1991)
C60 molecules: M
Fringe
Arndt et al.
visibility
Nature 401, 680-
decreases as
682 (1999) molecules
are heated.
With multiple- L.
slit grating Hackermüller
et al. , Nature
427 711-714
Without grating (2004)
Interference patterns can not be explained classically - clear demonstration of matter
Which slit?
• Try to determine which slit the electron went through.
• Shine light on the double slit and observe with a microscope. After the
electron passes through one of the slits, light bounces off it; observing the
reflected light, we determine which slit the electron went through.
Need λ ph < d to
•The photon momentum is: distinguish the slits.
Diffraction is significant
•The electron momentum is: only when the aperture is
~ the wavelength of the
wave.
•The momentum of the photons used to determine which slit the electron
went through is enough to strongly modify the momentum of the electron
itself—changing the direction of the electron! The attempt to identify which
slit the electron passes through will in itself change the diffraction pattern!
Discussion/interpretation of double slit
experiment
• Reduce flux of particles arriving at the slits so that only one
particle arrives at a time. -- still interference fringes
observed!
– Wave-behavior can be shown by a single atom or photon.
– Each particle goes through both slits at once.
– A matter wave can interfere with itself.
• Wavelength of matter wave unconnected to any internal size

of particle -- determined by the momentum
• If we try to find out which slit the particle goes through the
interference pattern vanishes!
– We cannot see the wave and particle nature at the same time.
– If we know which path the particle takes, we lose the fringes .
chard Feynman about two-slit experiment: “…a phenomenon which is impossibl

bsolutely impossible, to explain in any classical way, and which has in it the hear
f quantum mechanics. In realityaziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in
it contains the only mystery.”
Wave – particle - duality
• So, everything is both a particle and a wave -- disturbing!??
• “Solution”: Bohr’s Principle of Complementarity:
– It is not possible to describe physical observables
simultaneously in terms of both particles and waves
– Physical observables:
• quantities that can be experimentally measured. (e.g. position, velocity,
momentum, and energy..)
• in any given instance we must use either the particle description or the
wave description
– When we’re trying to measure particle properties, things
behave like particles; when we’re not, they behave like waves.
Probability, Wave Functions, and the
Copenhagen Interpretation
• Particles are also waves -- described by wave
function
• The wave function determines the probability of
finding a particle at a particular position in space at a
given time.
• The total probability of finding the particle is 1.

Forcing this condition on the wave function is called
normalization.
The Copenhagen
• Interpretation
Bohr’s interpretation of the wave
function consisted of three principles:
– Born’s statistical interpretation, based on
probabilities determined by the wave function
– Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
– Bohr’s complementarity principle
• Together these three concepts form a logical

interpretation of the physical meaning of quantum
theory. In the Copenhagen interpretation, physics
describes only the results of measurements.
Atoms in magnetic field
• orbiting electron behaves like current loop ⇒
magnetic moment interaction energy = μ · B (both
vectors!)
– loop current = -ev/(2πr)
– magnetic moment μ = current x area = - μB L/ħ
μB = e ħ/2me = Bohr magneton 
L
– interaction energy 
= m μB Bz n
(m = z –comp of L) A I

r
e−
Splitting of atomic energy levels
B=0 B≠0
m = +1
m=0
m = -1
(2l+1) states with B ≠ 0: (2l+1) states with

same energy: m=-l,… distinct energies
+l
(Hence the name
“magnetic
Predictions: should always get an odd quantum number”
number of levels. An s state (such as the for m.)
ground state of hydrogen, n=1, l=0, m=0)
should not be split. aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in
Stern - Gerlach experiment - 1
• magnetic dipole moment associated with angular momentum
• magnetic dipole moment of atoms and quantization of angular
momentum direction anticipated from Bohr-Sommerfeld atom
model
• magnetic dipole in uniform field magnetic field feels torque,but no
net force
• in non-uniform field there will be net force ⇒ deflection
• extent of deflection depends on
– non-uniformity of field S
– particle’s magnetic dipole moment
– orientation of dipole moment relative to mag. field
• Predictions: N
– Beam should split into an odd number of parts (2l+1)
– A beam of atoms in an s state (e.g. the ground state of
hydrogen, n = 1, l = 0, m = 0) should not be split.
Stern-Gerlach experiment (1921)
z
Magnet
Oven
N x
0
Ag beam
S
Ag-vapor Ag
collim.
screen
# Ag atoms
B= 0
N B↗
 Ag beam B↗↗
B
 
B = Bz ( z ) ez
S non-
uniform aziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in 0 z
Stern-Gerlach experiment -
• 3 electron in s-state
beam of Ag atoms (with
(l =0)) in non-uniform magnetic field
• force on atoms: F = µ z· ∂Bz/∂z
• results show two groups of atoms,
deflected in opposite directions, with
magnetic moments µ z= ± µ B
• Conundrum:
– classical physics would predict a continuous
distribution of μ
– quantum mechanics à la Bohr-Sommerfeld
predicts an odd number (2 l +1) of groups, i.e.
just one for an saziz_muhd33@yahoo.co.in
state
The concept of spin
• Stern-Gerlach results cannot be explained by interaction of magnetic
moment from orbital angular momentum
• must be due to some additional internal source of angular momentum
that does not require motion of the electron.
• internal angular momentum of electron (“spin”) was suggested in 1925
by Goudsmit and Uhlenbeck building on an idea of Pauli.
• Spin is a relativistic effect and comes out directly from Dirac’s
theory of the electron (1928)
• spin has mathematical analogies with angular momentum, but is not to
be understood as actual rotation of electron
• electrons have “half-integer” spin, i.e. ħ/2
• Fermions vs Bosons
Radioactivity
Radiation
Radiation: The process of emitting
energy in the form of waves or
particles.
Where does radiation come from?

Radiation is generally produced
when particles interact or decay.
A large contribution of the radiation

on earth is from the sun (solar) or
from radioactive isotopes of the
elements (terrestrial).
Radiation is going through you at

this very moment!
http://www.atral.com/U238.htm
Isotopes
What’s an isotope?
Two or more varieties of an element
having the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons. Certain
isotopes are “unstable” and decay to
lighter isotopes or elements.
Deuterium and tritium are isotopes of

hydrogen. In addition to the 1 proton, they
have 1 and 2 additional neutrons in the
nucleus respectively*.
Another prime example is Uranium
238, or just 238 U.
Radioactivity
Bythe
By theend
endof
ofthe
the1800s,
1800s,ititwas
wasknown
knownthat
thatcertain
certain
isotopesemit
isotopes emitpenetrating
penetratingrays.
rays.Three
Threetypes
typesofofradiation
radiation
wereknown:
were known:
1) Alpha
1) Alphaparticles
particles (α
(α ))
2) Beta
2) Betaparticles
particles (β
(β ))
3) Gamma-rays
3) Gamma-rays (γ ))
(γ
Where do these particles come
from ?
These particles generally come

from the nuclei of atomic isotopes
which are not stable.
 The decay chain of Uranium

produces all three of these forms
of radiation.
 Let’s look at them in more detail…

Note: This is the
atomic weight, which Alpha Particles
is the number of
protons plus neutrons (α )
Radium Radon
+ n p
p n
R226 Rn222
α ( 4He)
88 protons 86 protons 2 protons
138 neutrons 136 neutrons 2 neutrons
The alpha-particle (α ) is a Helium nucleus.
It’s the same as the element Helium, with the

electrons stripped off !
Beta Particles (β )
Carbon Nitrogen +
C14 N14 e-
6 protons 7 protons electron

8 neutrons 7 neutrons (beta-particle)
We see that one of the neutrons from the C14 nucleus

“converted” into a proton, and an electron was ejected.
The remaining nucleus contains 7p and 7n, which is a nitrogen
nucleus. In symbolic notation, the following process occurred:
np+e (+ν )
Yes, the same
neutrino we saw
previously
Gamma particles (γ )
In much the same way that electrons in atoms can be in an
excited state, so can a nucleus.
Neon Neon
Ne20 Ne20 +
10 protons 10 protons
gamma
10 neutrons 10 neutrons
(in excited state) (lowest energy state)
AAgamma
gammaisisaahigh
highenergy
energylight
lightparticle.
particle.
ItItisisNOT
NOTvisible
visibleby
byyour
yournaked
nakedeye
eyebecause
becauseititisisnot
notin
in
thevisible
the visiblepart
partof
ofthe
theEM
EMspectrum.
spectrum.
Gamma Rays
Neon
Ne20
Neon
Ne20 +
The gamma from nuclear decay

is in the X-ray/ Gamma ray
part of the EM spectrum
(very energetic!)
How do these particles
differ ?
Particle Mass* Charge
(MeV/c2)
Gamma (γ ) 0 0
Beta (β ) ~0.5 -1
Alpha (α ) ~3752 +2
** m
m== EE // cc22
Rate of Decay
Beyond knowing the types of particles which are emitted
when an isotope decays, we also are interested in how frequently
one of the atoms emits this radiation.
 A very important point here is that we cannot predict when a

particular entity will decay.
 We do know though, that if we had a large sample of a radioactive

substance, some number will decay after a given amount of time.
 Some radioactive substances have a very high “rate of decay”,

while others have a very low decay rate.
 To differentiate different radioactive substances, we look to

quantify this idea of “decay rate”
Half-Life
 The “half-life” (h) is the time it takes for half the atoms of a
radioactive substance to decay.
 For example, suppose we had 20,000 atoms of a radioactive

substance. If the half-life is 1 hour, how many atoms of that
substance would be left after:
#atoms % of atoms
Time remaining remaining
1 hour (one lifetime) ? 10,000 (50%)
2 hours (two lifetimes) ? 5,000 (25%)
3 hours (three lifetimes) ? 2,500 (12.5%)

Lifetime (τ )
 The“lifetime”
The “lifetime”of
ofaaparticle
particleisisan
analternate
alternatedefinition
definitionof
of
therate
the rateof
ofdecay,
decay,one
onewhich
whichweweprefer.
prefer.
ItItisisjust
justanother
anotherway
wayof
ofexpressing
expressinghow
howfast
fastthe
thesubstance
substance
decays..
decays..
ItItisissimply:
simply:1.44
1.44xxh,
h,and
andone
oneoften
oftenassociates
associatesthe
the
letter“τ
letter “τ ””to
toit.
it.
Thelifetime
The
 lifetimeof
ofaa“free”
“free”neutron
neutronis
is14.7
14.7minutes
minutes
{τ ((neutron)
{τ neutron)=14.7
=14.7min.}
min.}
Let’suse
Let’s
 usethis
thisaabit
bitto
tobecome
becomecomfortable
comfortablewith
withit…
it…
Lifetime (I)
 The lifetime of a free neutron is 14.7 minutes.
 If I had 1000 free neutrons in a box, after 14.7

minutes some number of them will have decayed.
 The number remaining after some time is given by the

radioactive decay law
N0 = starting number of
− t /τ
N = N0e τ
particles
= particle’s lifetime
This is the “exponential”. It’s

value is 2.718, and is a very useful
number. Can you find it on your
calculator?
Lifetime (II)
− t /τ
Note by slight rearrangement of this formula: N = N0 e
Fraction of particles which did not decay: N / N0 = e-t/ τ
1.20
# Time Fraction of
lifetimes (min) remaining 1.00
neutrons
Fraction Survived
0.80
0τ 0 1.0
1τ 14.7 0.368 0.60
2τ 29.4 0.135 0.40

3τ 44.1 0.050
0.20
4τ 58.8 0.018
5τ 73.5 0.007 After4-5
After
0.00
4-5lifetimes,
lifetimes, almostall
almost allofofthe
the
0 2 4 6
unstable particles have decayed
unstable particles have decayed away! away!
Lifetimes
Lifetime (III)
Notall
Not
 allparticles
particleshave
havethe
thesame
samelifetime.
lifetime.
Uranium-238has
Uranium-238
 hasaalifetime
lifetimeof
ofabout
about66billion
billion
(6x1099))years
(6x10 years!!
Somesubatomic
Some
 subatomicparticles
particleshave
havelifetimes
lifetimesthat
thatare
are
lessthan
less than1x10
1x10-1-122 sec
sec!!
 Givenaabatch
Given batchof
ofunstable
unstableparticles,
particles,we
wecannot
cannot
saywhich
say whichone
onewill
willdecay.
decay.
 Theprocess
The processof ofdecay
decayisisstatistical.
statistical.That
Thatis,
is,we
wecan
can
onlytalk
only talkabout
abouteither,
either,
1)the
1) thelifetime
lifetimeofofaaradioactive
radioactivesubstance*,
substance*, or or
2)the
2) the“probability”
“probability”that
thataagiven
givenparticle
particlewill
willdecay.
decay.
Lifetime (IV)
 Given a batch of 1 species of particles, some will decay
within 1 lifetime (1τ ), some within 2τ , some within 3τ , and
so on…
 We CANNOT say “Particle 44 will decay at t =22 min”.

You just can’t !
 All we can say is that:

 After 1 lifetime, there will be (37%) remaining
 After 2 lifetimes, there will be (14%) remaining
 After 3 lifetimes, there will be (5%) remaining
 After 4 lifetimes, there will be (2%) remaining, etc
Lifetime (V)
IfIfthe
theparticle’s
particle’slifetime
lifetimeisisvery
veryshort,
short,the
theparticles
particlesdecay
decayaway
awayvery
very
quickly.
quickly.
 Whenwe
When weget
getto
tosubatomic
subatomicparticles,
particles,the
thelifetimes
lifetimes
aretypically
are typicallyonly
onlyaasmall
smallfraction
fractionof
ofaasecond!
second!
IfIfthe
thelifetime
lifetimeisislong
long(like
(like232838U)
U)ititwill
willhang
hangaround
aroundfor
foraavery
verylong
long
time!
time!
Lifetime (IV)
at if we only have 1 particle before us? What can we say
out it?
Survival Probability = N / N0 = e-t/ τ
Decay Probability = 1.0 – (Survival Probabilit
# lifetimes Survival Probability Decay Probability =

(percent) 1.0 – Survival Probability
(Percent)
1 37% 63%
2 14% 86%
3 5% 95%
4 2% 98%
5 0.7% 99.3%
Summary
Certainparticles
Certain
 particlesare
areradioactive
radioactiveand
andundergo
undergodecay.
decay.
Radiationin
Radiation
 innuclear
nucleardecay
decayconsists ofαα ,,ββ ,,and
consistsof andγγ particles
particles
Therate
The
 rateof
ofdecay
decayisisgive
giveby
bythe
theradioactive
radioactivedecay
decaylaw:
law:
Survival Probability = (N/N )e

Survival Probability = (N/N00)e -t/-t/ττ
 After55lifetimes
After lifetimesmore
morethan
than99%
99%of
ofthe
theinitial
initialparticles
particles
havedecayed
have decayedaway.
away.
Someelements
Some
 elementshave
havelifetimes
lifetimes~billions
~billionsof
ofyears.
years.
Subatomicparticles
Subatomic
 particlesusually
usuallyhave
havelifetimes
lifetimeswhich
whichare
are
fractionsof
fractions ofaasecond…
second…We’ll
We’llcome
comeback
backto
tothis!
this!
Ionization sensors
(detectors)
• In an ionization sensor, the radiation
passing through a medium (gas or solid)
creates electron-proton pairs
• Their density and energy depends on the
energy of the ionizing radiation.
• These charges can then be attracted to
electrodes and measured or they may be
accelerated through the use of magnetic
fields for further use.
• The simplest and oldest type of sensor is
the ionization chamber.
Ionization chamber
• The chamber is a gas filled chamber

• Usually at low pressure
• Has predictable response to radiation.
• In most gases, the ionization energy for the outer
electrons is fairly small – 10 to 20 eV.
• A somewhat higher energy is required since some
energy may be absorbed without releasing charged
pairs (by moving electrons into higher energy bands
within the atom).
• For sensing, the important quantity is the W value.
• It is an average energy transferred per ion pair
generated. Table 9.1 gives the W values for a few
gases used in ion chambers.
W values for gases
Table 9.1. W va lues for var ious gases used in ionization chambers (eV/ion pair)
Gas Electrons (fast) Alpha particles
Argon (A) 27.0 25.9
Helium (He) 32.5 31.7
Nitrogen (N2) 35.8 36.0
Air 35.0 35.2
CH4 30.2 29.0
Ionization chamber
• Clearly ion pairs can also recombine.
• The current generated is due to an average rate of
ion generation.
• The principle is shown in Figure 9.1.
• When no ionization occurs, there is no current as the
gas has negligible resistance.
• The voltage across the cell is relatively high and
attracts the charges, reducing recombination.
• Under these conditions, the steady state current is a
good measure of the ionization rate.
Ionization chamber
Ionization chamber
• The chamber operates in the saturation
region of the I-V curve.
• The higher the radiation frequency and
the higher the voltage across the
chamber electrodes the higher the
current across the chamber.
• The chamber in Figure 9.1. is
sufficient for high energy radiation
• For low energy X-rays, a better
approach is needed.
Ionization chamber -
applications
• The most common use for ionization chambers
is in smoke detectors.
• The chamber is open to the air and ionization
occurs in air.
• A small radioactive source (usually Americum
241) ionizes the air at a constant rate
• This causes a small, constant ionization current
between the anode and cathode of the
chamber.
• Combustion products such as smoke enter the
chamber
Ionization chamber -
applications
• Smoke particles are much larger and heavier than air
• They form centers around which positive and negative charges
recombine.
• This reduces the ionization current and triggers an alarm.
• In most smoke detectors, there are two chambers.
• One is as described above. It can be triggered by humidity, dust
and even by pressure differences or small insects, a second,
reference chamber is provided
• In it the openings to air are too small to allow the large smoke
particles but will allow humidity.
• The trigger is now based on the difference between these two
currents.
Ionization chambers in a
residential smoke detector
Ionization chambers -
application
• Fabric density sensor (see figure).
• The lower part contains a low energy radioactive
isotope (Krypton 85)
• The upper part is an ionization chamber.
• The fabric passes between them.
• The ionization current is calibrated in terms of
density (i.e. weight per unit area).
• Similar devices are calibrated in terms of
thickness (rubber for example) or other quantities
that affect the amount of radiation that passes
through such as moisture
A nuclear fabric density
sensor
Proportional chamber
• A proportional chamber is a gas ionization chamber but:
• The potential across the electrodes is high enough to
produce an electric field in excess of 106 V/m.
• The electrons are accelerated, process collide with
atoms releasing additional electrons (and protons) in a
process called the Townsend avalanche.
• These charges are collected by the anode and because
of this multiplication effect can be used to detect lower
intensity radiation.
Proportional chamber
• The device is also called a proportional
counter or multiplier.
• If the electric field is increased further,
the output becomes nonlinear due to
protons which cannot move as fast as
electrons causing a space charge.
• Figure 9.2 shows the region of
operation of the various types of gas
chambers.
Operation of ionization
chambers
Geiger-Muller counters
• An ionization chamber
• Voltage across an ionization chamber is very high
• The output is not dependent on the ionization
energy but rather is a function of the electric field in
the chamber.
• Because of this, the GM counter can “count” single
particles whereas this would be insufficient to
trigger a proportional chamber.
• This very high voltage can also trigger a false
reading immediately after a valid reading.
• To prevent this, a quenching gas is added to the noble gas
that fills the counter chamber.
• The G-M counter is made as a tube, up to 10-15cm long
and about 3cm in diameter.
• A window is provided to allow penetration of radiation.
• The tube is filled with argon or helium with about 5-10%
alcohol (Ethyl alcohol) to quench triggering.
• The operation relies heavily on the avalanche effect
• UV radiation is released which, in itself adds to the
avalanche process.
• The output is about the same no matter what the
ionization energy of the input radiation is.
• Because of the very high voltage, a single particle can
release 109 to 1010 ion pairs.
• This means that a G-M counter is essentially guaranteed
to detect any radiation through it.
• The efficiency of all ionization chambers depends on the
type of radiation.
• The cathodes also influence this efficiency
• High atomic number cathodes are used for higher
energy radiation (γ rays) and lower atomic number
cathodes to lower energy radiation.
Geiger-Muller sensor
Scintillation sensors
• Takes advantage of the radiation to light
conversion (scintillation) that occurs in certain
materials.
• The light intensity generated is then a measure
of the radiation’s kinetic energy.
• Some scintillation sensors are used as detectors
in which the exact relationship to radiation is
not critical.
• In others it is important that a linear relation
exists and that the light conversion be efficient.
• Materials used should exhibit fast light decay
following irradiation (photoluminescence) to allow
fast response of the detector.
• The most common material used for this purpose
is Sodium-Iodine (other of the alkali halide crystals
may be used and activation materials such as
thalium are added)
• There are also organic materials and plastics that
may be used for this purpose. Many of these have
faster responses than the inorganic crystals.
• The light conversion is fairly weak because it
involves inefficient processes.
• Light obtained in these scintillating materials is
of light intensity and requires “amplification” to
be detectable.
• A photomultiplier can be used as the detector
mechanism as shown in Figure 9.5 to increase
sensitivity.
• The large gain of photomultipliers is critical in
the success of these devices.
• The reading is a function of many parameters.
• First, the energy of the particles and the
efficiency of conversion (about 10%) defines how
many photons are generated.
• Part of this number, say k, reaches the cathode of
the photomultiplier.
• The cathode of the photomultiplier has a
quantuum efficiency (about 20-25%).
• This number, say k1 is now multiplied by the gain
of the photomultiplier G which can be of the order
of 106 to 108.
Scintillation sensor
Semiconductor radiation
detectors
• Light radiation can be detected in
semiconductors through release of charges
across the band gap
• Higher energy radiation can be expected do
so at much higher efficiencies.
• Any semiconductor light sensor will also be
sensitive to higher energy radiation
• In practice there are a few issues that have
to be resolved.
detectors
• First, because the energy is high, the lower bandgap
materials are not useful since they would produce currents
that are too high.
• Second, high energy radiation can easily penetrate through
the semiconductor without releasing charges.
• Thicker devices and heavier materials are needed.
• Also, in detection of low radiation levels, the background
noise, due to the “dark” current (current from thermal
sources) can seriously interfere with the detector.
• Because of this, some semiconducting radiation sensors
can only be used at cryogenic temperatures.
detectors
• When an energetic particle penetrates into a
semiconductor, it initiates a process which releases
electrons (and holes)
– through direct interaction with the crystal
– through secondary emissions by the primary electrons
• To produce a hole-electron pair energy is required:
– Called ionization energy - 3-5 eV (Table 9.2).
– This is only about 1/10 of the energy required to release an ion pair in
gases
• The basic sensitivity of semiconductor sensors is an
order of magnitude higher than in gases.
Properties of
semiconductors
Table 9.2. Properties of some common semiconductors

Material Operating Atomic Band gap [eV] Energy per electron-
temp [°K] number hole pair [eV]
Silicon (Si) 300 14 1.12 3.61
Germanium (Ge) 77 32 0.74 2.98
Cadmium- teluride 300 48, 52 1.47 4.43
(CdTe)
Mercury-Iodine (HgI2) 300 80, 53 2.13 6.5
Gallium-Arsenide 300 31, 33 1.43 4.2
(GaAs)
detectors
• Semiconductor radiation sensors are essentially
diodes in reverse bias.
• This ensures a small (ideally negligible) background
(dark) current.
• The reverse current produced by radiation is then a
measure of the kinetic energy of the radiation.
• The diode must be thick to ensure absorption of the
energy due to fast particles.
• The most common construction is similar to the PIN
diode and is shown in Figure 9.6.
sensor
detectors
• In this construction, a normal diode is built but with a
much thicker intrinsic region.
• This region is doped with balanced impurities so that it
resembles an intrinsic material.
• To accomplish that and to avoid the tendency of drift
towards either an n or p behavior, an ion-drifting
process is employed by diffusing a compensating
material throughout the layer.
• Lithium is the material of choice for this purpose.
detectors
• Additional restrictions must be imposed:
• Germanium can be used at cryogenic temperatures
• Silicon can be used at room temperature but:
• Silicon is a light material (atomic number 14)
• It is therefore very inefficient for energetic radiation such as
γ rays.
• For this purpose, cadmium telluride (CdTe) is the most often
used because it combines heavy materials (atomic numbers
48 and 52) with relatively high bandgap energies.
detectors
• Other materials that can be used are the mercuric iodine (HgI2)
and gallium arsenide (GaAs).
• Higher atomic number materials may also be used as a simple
intrinsic material detector (not a diode) because the
background current is very small (see chapter 3).
• The surface area of these devices can be quite large (some as
high as 50mm in diameter) or very small (1mm in diameter)
depending on applications.
• Resistivity under dark conditions is of the order of 108 to 1010
Ω .cm depending on the construction and on doping, if any
(intrinsic materials have higher resistivity).
• .
detectors - notes
• The idea of avalanche can be used to increase
sensitivity of semiconductor radiation detectors,
especially at lower energy radiation.
• These are called avalanche detectors and operate
similarly to the proportional detectors
• While this can increase the sensitivity by about two
orders of magnitude it is important to use these
only for low energies or the barrier can be easily
breached and the sensor destroyed.
detectors - notes
• Semiconducting radiation sensors are the most sensitive
and most versatile radiation sensors
• They suffer from a number of limitations.
• Damage can occur when exposed to radiation over time.
• Damage can occur in the semiconductor lattice, in the
package or in the metal layers and connectors.
• Prolonged radiation may also increase the leakage (dark)
current and result in a loss of energy resolution of the
sensor.
• The temperature limits of the sensor must be taken into
account (unless a cooled sensor is used).
History of Constituents of
Matter
AD
•In Nuclear Reactions momentum and mass-energy is
conserved – for a closed system the total momentum
and energy of the particles present after the reaction is
equal to the total momentum and energy of the
particles before the reaction
•In the case where an alpha particle is released from an

unstable nucleus the momentum of the alpha particle
and the new nucleus is the same as the momentum of
the original unstable nucleus
__
1 1 0 0
Wolfgang Pauli
n 0 → p1 + e −1 +υ 0
•Large variations in the emission velocities of the β particle
seemed to indicate that both energy and momentum were not
conserved.
•This led to the proposal by Wolfgang Pauli of another particle,
the neutrino, being emitted in β decay to carry away the
missing mass and momentum.
•The neutrino (little neutral one) was discovered in 1956.
1 1 0 0
n 0 → p1 + e −1 +υ 0
__
1.008665 u 1.007825 u 0.0005486 u
1u= 1.660 × 10 −27 kg
1J= 1.6 × 10 −19 eV
Mass difference = 1.008665 − (1.007825 + 0.0005486)
= 0.0002914 u
= 0.0002914 × 1.660 × 10 −27 kg
−31
= 4.83724 × 10 kg
2
E = mc
= (4.83724 × 10 −31 )(3.0 × 108 ) 2 J
= 4.353516 × 10 −14 J
4.353516 ×10 −14

= = 271755 eV
1.602 ×10 −19
= 0.272 MeV
It has been found by experiment that the emitted beta particle

has less energy than 0.272 MeV
Neutrino accounts for the ‘missing’ energy
• Ancient Greeks:
Earth, Air, Fire,
Water
• By 1900, nearly 100
elements
• By 1936, back to three
particles: proton,
neutron, electron
The Four Fundamental Forces
E
m= 2
c
Particle
zoo
Classification of Particle
Thomson (1897): Discovers electron
1x10 −10 m
1x10 −15 m
0.7 x10 −15 m
≤ 0.7 x10 −18 m
_
60 60 0 0
27 Co→ 28 Ni + −1 e + 0 υ
Q = -1e almost all trapped in atoms
Q= 0 all freely moving through universe
Just as the equation x2=4 can have two possible
solutions (x=2 OR x=-2), so Dirac's equation
could have two solutions, one for an electron
with positive energy, and one for an electron
with negative energy.
Dirac interpreted this to mean that for every

particle that exists there is a corresponding
antiparticle, exactly matching the particle but
with opposite charge. For the electron, for
instance, there should be an "antielectron"
called the positron identical in every way but
with a positive electric charge.
+ −
γ →e +e
1928 Dirac predicted existence of antimatter
1932 antielectrons (positrons) found in conversion of
energy into matter
1995 antihydrogen consisting of antiprotons and
positrons produced at CERN
In principle an antiworld can be built from

antimatter
Produced only in accelerators and
in cosmic rays
+ −
γ rays → e + e
+ −
e + e → 2hf
2
Q=+
3 Q = +1
Q=−
1 Q=0
3
James Joyce
Murray Gell-Mann
1 2
− +
3 3
1 2
− +
3 3
1 2
− +
3 3
2 2 1
+ + − = +1
3 3 3
2 1 1
+ − − =0
2 3 3 3
+
3
1
−
3

Modern Physics by Imran Aziz

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Modern Physics by Imran Aziz

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Modern Physics

MOHAMMAD IMRAN AZIZ

Clocks moving relative to an observer are measured by that

We have a blob of positive charge

From the edge of the atom, the nucleus

Rutherford assumed the electrons must

• This regularity must have some

• Relativistic relationship between a particle’s

Result: peak in scattered radiation shifts to

Incident light wave Oscillating electron Emitted light wave

• Compton’s explanation: collisions between particles of light (X-

Conservation of energy Conservation of momentum

• unshifted peaks come

Expectation: two peaks for particles, interference pattern for waves

Maxima when: d sin θ = nλ

– patterns on screen are result of distribution of photons

He atoms: O Carnal and J

• Wavelength of matter wave unconnected to any internal size

chard Feynman about two-slit experiment: “…a phenomenon which is impossibl

• The total probability of finding the particle is 1.

• Together these three concepts form a logical

(2l+1) states with B ≠ 0: (2l+1) states with

Where does radiation come from?

A large contribution of the radiation

Radiation is going through you at

Deuterium and tritium are isotopes of

These particles generally come

 The decay chain of Uranium

 Let’s look at them in more detail…

The alpha-particle (α ) is a Helium nucleus.

It’s the same as the element Helium, with the

6 protons 7 protons electron

We see that one of the neutrons from the C14 nucleus

The gamma from nuclear decay

 A very important point here is that we cannot predict when a

 We do know though, that if we had a large sample of a radioactive

 Some radioactive substances have a very high “rate of decay”,

 To differentiate different radioactive substances, we look to

 For example, suppose we had 20,000 atoms of a radioactive

1 hour (one lifetime) ? 10,000 (50%)

2 hours (two lifetimes) ? 5,000 (25%)

3 hours (three lifetimes) ? 2,500 (12.5%)

 If I had 1000 free neutrons in a box, after 14.7

 The number remaining after some time is given by the

This is the “exponential”. It’s

2τ 29.4 0.135 0.40

 We CANNOT say “Particle 44 will decay at t =22 min”.

 All we can say is that:

Survival Probability = N / N0 = e-t/ τ

Decay Probability = 1.0 – (Survival Probabilit

# lifetimes Survival Probability Decay Probability =

Survival Probability = (N/N )e

• The chamber is a gas filled chamber

Table 9.2. Properties of some common semiconductors

•In the case where an alpha particle is released from an

1.008665 u 1.007825 u 0.0005486 u

1u= 1.660 × 10 −27 kg

1J= 1.6 × 10 −19 eV

= 0.0002914 × 1.660 × 10 −27 kg

4.353516 ×10 −14

It has been found by experiment that the emitted beta particle

0.7 x10 −15 m

≤ 0.7 x10 −18 m