AC CIRCUITS

ELTE 1402

Frequency and Period: DC Component of Rectified AC is the average value of

1 the Voltage.
T=
f where: T = time of one period [s] E max
E avg = half-wave rectifier
f = frequency [hertz Hz] π
Angular Velocity: [radians/second] ω = 2π f Eavg =
2Emax
full-wave rectifier
π
Wavelength: [meters]

v where: λ = wavelength [m]

λ= v = velocity [m/s]
Reactance
f f = frequency [Hz] A coil has an inductive X L = 2πfL = ωL
reactance in ohms of:
The velocity of radio waves is 3 × 108 m/s. (L = Henrys)
The velocity of sound waves is 1130 m/s
A capacitor has a capacitive reactance 1
in ohms of: XC =
2πfC
Average Value of a Sine Wave: [volts]
2 The resonant frequency of an inductor 1
eavg = 0.637 E max = E max and capacitor in series or parallel: f =
π 2π LC

Average Current of a Sine Wave: [amps]

2 Power
i avg = 0.637 I max = I max
π
Power in a Resistive Circuit:
Effective or rms Value of a Sine Wave: [volts] The P = ei instantaneous power
value of alternating current that produces the same heating E max I max
effect as the corresponding value of direct current.
Pavg = = E rms I rms power dissipated
2
1
erms = 0. 707 E max = E max Power Factor is the ratio of R P
erms = E max sin 45 or 2 true power to apparent = cos θ = = r= T
power. Multiply by 100 to Z V PA
Emax is peak voltage Emax × 2 = Epp (peak to peak) express as a percent. A
power factor of 1 is PR P
r
AC voltage values will assumed rms unless otherwise specified. desirable to keep the size we
Power VAR
t Po
of power transformers and ren
pa
Reactive

wiring to a minimum. This Ap

Instantaneous Sinusoidal Voltage: [volts] is done by adding PT

capacitance to an inductive
e = E max sin ϖt True Power
where: ω = angular velocity circuit
(radian mode) or [rad/s] or 2πf True Power is the product of PT = VI × PF
e = E max sin θ t = time in motion [sec.] voltage and current and power 2
θ = angle [degrees] vR
(degree mode) factor; the actual power
PT = = EI cos θ
consumed in a purely resistive R
The resultant instantaneous voltage of two waveforms can be ac circuit.
found by expressing in the above form and adding the two
together.
Apparent Power is the product of voltage PA = EI
and current when they are not in phase.
Volt-Ampere Reactive (VAR) Power
is the the vertical component of PR = EI sin θ
Vector: A straight line representing the magnitude and
direction of a quantity. product of E and I in a reactive ac
Phasor: A quantity that has magnitude and direction in the circuit:
time domain. i.e. a vector that changes with time.

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 06/12/98

 Parallel RCL Circuits
Voltage-Ratio formula, by the VR
= =I IC
X
throughout a series circuit, where IT = I R + ( IC − I L )
2 2

X X or X : IR
Phase Angle: X VX VR R
tan θ = = cos θ = = IC − I L V
(θ would be
R VR V Z tan θ =
negative in IR IL
a capacitive circuit)

Impedance: Z 2 = R2 + X 2 E = IZ To find total current and phase angle in multielement circuits,

find I for each path and add vectorally. Note that when
Z XC R
V 2 = VR 2 + VX 2 = = converting between current and resistance, a division will
V VC V R take place requiring the use of polar notation and resulting
in a change of sign for the angle since it will be divided into
In rectangular notation: Z = R ± jX (subtracted from) an angle of zero.
Equivalent Series Circuit: Given the Z in polar notation of a
parallel circuit, the resistance and reactance of the
equivalent series circuit is as follows:
Series RCL Circuits R = ZT cosθ X = ZT sinθ
The Resultant Phasor X = X L − X C XL
is in the direction of the larger
reactance and determines whether R Resonant Circuits
the circuit is inductive or capacitive. I
If XL is larger than XC, then the Resonant Frequency: The frequency at
which XL = XC. In a series-resonant 1
circuit is inductive and X is a vector XC circuit, the impedance is at its fR =
in the upward direction.
minimum and the current is at its 2π LC
In series circuits, the amperage is the
VL maximum. For a parallel-resonant
reference (horizontal) vector. This
is observed on the oscilloscope by circuit, the opposite is true.
looking at the voltage across the VR Circuit Q is the quality of the circuit, the ratio of
resistor. The two vector diagrams inductive reactance of a coil to its resistance. A Q of
I 10 or greater is considered high Q.
at right illustrate the phase
relationship between voltage, X L E capacitor rs is the series resistance
VC
resistance, reactance, and Q= = (applies to a coil or a
amperage. rs E applied resonant LC circuit)
Impedance: Z 2 = R2 + ( X L − X C )2 R If a capacitor is added to form a series-resonant circuit,
Z= the Q remains the same.
cos θ In a parallel resonant circuit, Q can I L IC
Impedance may be found by adding the components using
vector algebra. By converting the result to polar notation, be expressed as: Q= =
IT IT
the phase angle is also found.
For multielement circuits, total each resistance and Line Current in a parallel-resonant IT = IC − I L
reactance before using the above formula. circuit:
Bandwidth
series-resonant circuit: The frequency range
Parallel RC and RL Circuits between the two points on the
frequency response curve that are fr
.707 of the maximum current. BW =
Q
IT = I R2 + I X 2 IX V∠0° parallel-resonant circuit: The
tan θ = I∠ − θ = frequency range between the points where the
IR Z∠θ impedance is .707 of the maximum.
The resonant frequency fr is at the center of the
bandwidth.

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 06/12/98

 Vector Algebra Using Thévenin’s Theorem
Rectangular Notation: Z = R ± jX where +j represents Consider the load to be an open circuit. Under this
condition, calculate the voltage present at the load
inductive reactance and -j represents capacitive
reactance. For example, Z = 8 + j6Ω means that a terminals (called the Thévenin voltage, ETH).
Consider the load to be an open circuit and the AC
resistor of 8Ω is in series with an inductive reactance power source to be a short circuit. Now calculate the
of 6Ω. impedance seen at the load terminals (called the
Polar Notation: Z = M ∠θ, Thévenin impedance, ZTH).
where M is the magnitude of ud
e Consider the new circuit below, with ETH as the voltage
nit M Y
the reactance and θ is the M ag
and ZTH as the
direction with respect to the impedance of a Thévenin Equivalent Circuit
horizontal (pure resistance) θ reactance in series.
axis. For example, a X The voltage and Z TH
resistor of 4Ω in series with current across RL
a capacitor with a reactance may now be ETH RL
of 3Ω would be expressed calculated using the
as 5 ∠-36.9° Ω. Voltage Divider
In the descriptions above, impedance is used as an theorem.
example. Rectangular and Polar Notation can also be
used to express amperage, voltage, and power.
To convert from rectangular to polar notation:
Given: X - jY (careful with the sign before the ”j”)
Magnitude: X 2 + Y2 = M
Angle: −Y (negative sign carried over
tan θ = from rectangular notation
X in this example)
Note: Due to the way the calculator works, if X is negative,
you must add 180° after taking the inverse tangent. If the
result is greater than 180°, you may optionally subtract
360° to obtain the value closest to the reference angle.
To convert from polar to rectangular (j) notation:
Given: M ∠θ
X Value: M cosθ
Y (j) Value: M sinθ
In conversions, the j value will have the same sign as the θ
value for angles having a magnitude < 180°.
Use rectangular notation when adding and subtracting.
Use polar notation for multiplication and division. Multiply in
polar notation by multiplying the magnitudes and adding
the angles. Divide in polar notation by dividing the
magnitudes and subtracting the denominator angle from
the numerator angle.

Conductance (G): The reciprocal of resistance in

siemens (S).
Susceptance (B, BL, BC): The
B Y
Susceptance

reciprocal of reactance in nc
e
siemens (S). mitta
Ad
Admittance (Y): The reciprocal
G
of impedance in siemens Conductance
(S).

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 06/12/98