Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Provided by a skeleton.
2. Types of skeleton:
a) Exoskeleton – shell
- insects and crabs
- importance: i) supports important body organs
ii) protects the internal structures from damage
iii) allows movement
iv) waxy cuticles found on the surface of insects prevents
water loss.
b) Endoskeleton – bones and cartilage
- vertebrates
- importance: i) maintaining body shape
ii) supporting soft tissue
iii) protecting internal organs from injury
iv) stores mineral (calcium and phosphorus)
v) produce blood cells
c) Hydrostatic skeleton – internal watery fluids held under pressure contained within
confined spaces in the body surrounded by the muscles.
- caterpillar and earthworm
1. Parts:
a) axial skeleton
b) appendicular skeleton
1. Consists of:
a) skull
b) vertebral column
c) the ribs
d) sternum
2. Skull consist of:
a) Cranial bones – enclose and protect the brain
b) Facial bones – protect and provide support for the entrances to the digestive system
and respiratory system
c) Suture – immovable joints which securely hold bones that make up the skull
d) Jaw – movable joint
4. Cervical vertebrae
a) Have transverse formaen through which blood vessels and nerve pass.
5. Thoracic vertebra
a) Have spinous processes that are long directed downwards.
b) Spinous and transverse processes serve as points of attachment of muscles and
ligaments.
6. Lumbar vertebra
a) Largest and strongest.
b) Have large centrums which bear the weight of the lower back.
7. Thorax:
a) thoracic cage (consists of ribs and the sternum)
b) encloses and protects the organs in the thoracic cavity and upper abdominal cavity.
1. Consists of:
a) Pectoral girdle – clavicle and scapula
b) Humerus – upper arm, longest bone
c) Ulna
d) Radius
e) Carpals - wrist
f) Metacarpals – palm of the hand
g) Phalanges – fingers and toefingers
g) Pelvic girdle – consists of two hip bones which provide strong and stable support for
the vertebral column.
h) Femur – thigh bone, longest, heaviest and strongest
i) Tibia
j) Fibula
k) Patella – kneecap
l) Tarsals - ankle
m) Metatarsals – foot
the bones)
- covered with cartilage
4. Cartilage cushions the joint, absorbs shock and reduces friction between the ends of the
bones.
5. Joints:-
1. A skeletal muscle such as the biceps consists of bundles of muscle fibres and large
supply of nerves and blood vessels.
2. A muscle fibre is a single, long cylindrical cell that contains many nuclei.
3. A muscle fibre is made up of bundles of smaller units called myofibrils.
4. Each myofibril is made up of actin and myosin ( protein filaments).
5. The interaction of both these proteins causes muscle contractions.
6. Muscle contraction involves the nervous systema and requires energy.
3. Osteoporosis
Definition: Common bone disorder, especially among elderly women. The bones become
thinner, more brittle and more porous.
Causes: - Loss of bone mass begins after the age of 30 and accelerates greatly around the
age 45.
- If dietary intake of the of phosphate and calcium is insufficient.
- Bone production and bone tissue will suffer resulting in brittle and fragile
bones.
Symptoms: - fractures of the vertebrae, wrist or hips
- loss of height and stooped posture
Prevention: - Adequae intake of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D.
- Regular exercise
4. Arthritis
Definition: - Decreased production of synovial fluid in joints and cartilage between bones
become thinner (osteoarthritis), and ligaments shorten and lose some of their
elasticity.
- Suffer from a painful and stiff knee which restricts daily activities like
walking.
1. A grasshopper uses three legs to support the body off the ground, while the other three
legs move together to make successive steps while walking.
2. The flexor and extensor (antagonistic) muscles are attached to the internal surface of
the exoskeleton.
3. Flexor muscles bend a joint.
4. Extensor muscles straighten it.
5. The rear legs of a grasshopper are long and muscular and is adapted for hopping.
6. Sitting position: When the flexor muscle contracts, the lower leg is pulled towards the
body. The hind leg is folded in a Z shape and ready for a jump.
7. Jump: When the extensor muscle contracts, the leg jerks backwards, propelling the
grasshopper forward and upward into the air.
3. Myotomes – W shaped muscle blocks that make up each side of the body of a fish and
carry out opposite action.
4. Alternating waves of contraction and relaxation pass down the myotomes on either
side of the body from the head to the tail.
5. These cause different parts of the body to be swept from side to side pushing water
backwards and sideways and the body forwards.
6. Tendency for a fish to become unstable in water during movement, leading to:-
a) yawing – sideways movement
b) pitching – vertical plane movement
c) rolling – transverse plane movement
7. Movements are countered by fins. Caudal fin provides thrust and controls the fish’s
direction.
1. Why?
a) Plant grows and it produces more leaves.
b) Grow tall therefore needs to withstand the forces of gravity.
c) Spreading of leaves and branches horizontally.
2. Aquatic plants are supported by buoyancy and support.
Submerged plants
1. Hydrilla sp. have thin, narrow and flexible leaves.
2. This type of leaves provide little resistance to water flows, plants can be tugged at and
pulled by water currents without being damaged.
3. Air sacs inside the leaves and stems keep the plant floating close to the surface to
obtain maximum sunlight.
4. Their stems have no woody tissues.
Floating plants
1. Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) have broad leaves that are firm but flexible
enough to resist tearing by wave action.
2. Aerenchyma tissues (spongy tissues with large air spaces between the cells) in the
stems and leaves provide buoyancy so that the plants can float on the surface of the
water.
Woody plants
1. Support provided by sclerenchyma and xylem tissues.
2. Sclerenchyma tissue is composed of cells with secondary cell walls that are usually
lignified which support non-growing parts of plants.
3. Two types of sclerenchyma tissue:
a) fibres – long, straight and thin
5. Type of vessels:
a) annular (ring shaped) vessel
b) spiral vessel
c) scalariform (ladder like) vessel
d) pitted vessel
6. Secondary growth of xylem results in the formation of wood which makes the plant
stronger and and provides support..
7. Other supporting structures:
a) Buttress root – roots that come out from the lower part of the trunk and grow into the
ground, providing support for the tree.
b) Creepers, vines and lianas – use other trees for support.