"Freshwater Aquaculture" (FAC-211) : Books

“Freshwater Aquaculture”
(FAC-211)
Books
1. Hand book of fisheries and aquaculture.
(ICAR book by Dr. S. Ayyappan)
2. Freshwater Aquaculture
(By R. K. Rath)
3. Aquaculture : Principles & Practices
(By T.V.R. Pillay)
Cultivable fish species
• Carps, catfishes, prawns and mussels.
• Diverse to suit varied ecological conditions
of different water bodies as also to meet the
regional preferences.
•Technologies available for breeding and
culture of air breathing (Clarias batrachus,
Heteropneustes fossilis) and non airbreathing
catfish (Wallago attu, Mystus seenghala, M.
aor and Pungasius pungasius)

• FW prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii and
M. malcolmsonii imp. For hatchery and grow
out system.
• Culture of FW pearl through nuclei
implantation in the bivalve, Lamellidens spp.
Recently chinese large bivalve Hyriopsis
introduced for pearl culture.
•Cultivation of aquatic weed makhana,
Euryale ferox and water chestnut, trapa
bispinosa, blue green algae spirulina spp.
And biofertilizers like Azolla and duckweeds
Lemna, Spirodela, Wolfia etc useful in waste tr
Coldwater aquaculture
• Cultivable fish species are Trout (Brown &
rainbow trout), Indian trout (Schizothorax
spp), Mahseer, Common carp including mirror
carp among cyprinidae.
• Modern trout farms in India – Himachal
Pradesh trout farm, J & K trout farm.
•Mahseer breeding.

• The potential cultivable species have gained
importance due to excellent food value,
delicious taste, better meat quality and
consumer preferences.
Water resources
Ponds & tanks – 2.25 million ha
Beels & derelict waters – 1.3 million ha
Lakes & reservoirs – 2.09 million ha
Irrigation cannals & channels – 0.12 m Km
Paddy field – 2.3 million ha
Considering the availability of water area of
ponds & tanks only 45% utilized shows the
potential of horizontal expansion
Fish production
• FW aquaculture account over 70% of total
inland fish production.
• Both Indian and exotic carp contribute over
90% of total freshwater aquaculture
production.
•FFDAs enhanced the average productivity
from 500 to about 2000 Kg/Ha/yr however the
potential of technologies at 15 tonnes/Ha/yr.
Fish production range under different culture systems
Sl. No. Culture system Average production rates
(T/ha/yr)
1 Composite fish culture 4-6
2 Intensive culture 10-15
3 Clarias culture 3-5
4 Sewage-fed fish 3-5
5 Integrated fish 3-5
6 Pen culture 4-5
7 Cage culture 10-15
8 Running water fish 25-50 kg/m3
9 Shrimp farming 2-5
10 Aquatic weed based 3-4
11 Biogas slurry based 3-5
12 Makhana & air breathing fish 1.52 + 94 kg makhana
Azolla FW mussel
Makhana
Lemna Spirulina
(Euyale spp.)
Mud Crab Pen
Cage culture
Culture of Indian Major Carps
Management of Nursery Ponds
Pond may be either existing one or newly constructed
Pond Preparation
The shape of pond must be rectangular and pond direction should ne east to
west. Size of pond should be 0.03 to 0.05 ha with water depth of 1 to 1.5 m.
There should be screen at inlet and outlet. It is necessary to expose pond
bottom to the sunlight for better mineralization, escape of toxic gases and to
keep free from aquatic insects, aquatic weeds, predatory fishes.
Steps (Pre-stocking)
1.Eradiation of aquatic weeds.
2.Removal of unwanted fish.
3.Application of lime.
4.Fertilization.
5.Control of aquatic insects.
1. Aquatic weeds
It is defined as unwanted and undesirable vegetation that grow in waters
and if unchecked causes serious problems in fish culture.
Based on the habitat, classified into floating, submerged, emergent,
marginal, filamentous and algal blooms.
a. Floating weeds – Don’t have roots, they may be floating in water with
leaves over surface of water, drifted by water currents and waves
induced by winds. They are more problematic than the other kind of
weeds. Eg. Eichhornia (Water Hyacinth), Pistia (Water Lettuce),
Salvenia (Water Fern), Duck weed (Lemna, Azolla, Spirodella)
b. Submerged weeds – Present in water column and not seen above
water surface, some are rooted at the bottom of the ponds while
some are non-rooted. Rooted weeds – Hydrilla, Vallisneria (Tape
grass), Potamogeton, Otelia, Najas, Chara (Stone wort), Non-rooted –
Ceratophyllum, Utricularia
c. Emergent weed - Rooted at the pond bottom but leaves are floating
above surface of water. Eg. Nymphia, Nelumbo, Nymphoides,
Myriophyllum.
d. Marginal weeds – They are grown at edge of ponds or at interphase
between land and water, grow over moist land. Eg. Typha, Marselia,
Cyperus.
e. Filamentous algae and algal blooms – Scum or mat forming type and
found floating at pond surface. Eg. Spirogyra.
Algal blooms are formed by unicellular algae. Eg. Microcystis,
Euglena.They are formed due to over fertilization or due to input of
excess nutrients.
Disadvantages of aquatic weeds
• Interference in culture activities.
• Decrease in DO level
• Restrict space for movement of fish.
• Utilize nutrients.
• Interference in netting operation.
• Restrict light penetration.
• Release toxic gases.
Strategies for development
A balance biomass of submerged vegetation and algae is required for
ecosystem of composite fish culture but excessive infestation is
harmful.
Control of aquatic weeds
Generally the method is selected based on the dimension of the weed
infestation, size of the pond and time available.
1. Physical- manual or mechanical, various tools such as sickle, blades,
wire mess, hooks, wooden sticks, weed cutter etc. are used.
2. Biological- stocking of weed-eating fishes like grass carp, common
carp, gourami and silver barb is an effective method for long term
control and maintenance of weed population especially in grow-out.
3. Chemical or weedicides- Marginal & emergent weeds by spraying
glyphosate@3 kg/ha, foliar spray of 2-4D @ 7-10 kg/ha, phytoplankton
bloom by algicide Somazine or Diuron at 0.3 to 0.5 ppm. Anhydrous
ammonia @ 20ppm N is also effective not only in controlling the
submerged weeds but also helps to eradicate weed & predatory fish.
Young fish
Fish harvest from a cage
Fish feed pellets Harvesting fish from a pond

Ornamental fishes
goldfish
Marine Algae World farmed harvest
in 2004 – 16,225,410 MT
Algae farm
China harvested 71% of total
Sushi with black

algae wrapper
Cultivated kelp
Pearl Oyster
Inserting a nucleus
Removing a pearl
Japan is the leading

producer of pearls
1. Application of modern aquaculture techniques.

2. Introduction of new cultivable species.
3. Improvement in fish feed.
4. Improvement in the quality/availability of seed
5. Aquaculture practices in unutilized water bodies.
6. Increase the no. of hatcheries.
7. Culture of prawn, aquarium fish, FW pearl production etc. should be
emphasized.
8. Improvement in the existing extension practices.
9. Human resource development in fisheries sector
(fishermen/fishfarmers, entrepreneurs etc.)
10. Improvement in the fish marketing and processing.
Soil & water characteristics
The productivity of a fish pond depends on the physical, chemical and
biological properties of the pond soil. Pond bottom acts as the
laboratory where process of mineralization of organic matter takes
place and nutrients are released to overlying water column. Physical
properties of soil like texture and water receptivity, and chemical
properties like pH, organic carbon, available nitrogen and available
phosphorus are important parameters which require considerable
attention for effective pond management.
Slightly acidic to neutral soil with pH 6.5 to 7 is considered productive.
Since low soil pH is associated with low productivity, pond bottom
with low pH needs correction, done through lime application.
In acid sulphate soil, the high levels of pyrite (FeS2) present in the soil
remains reduced and undergo little changes as long as the soil is
submerged and anaerobic. When soil is exposed , aerobic condition
helps in oxidation of these pyrites resulting in formation of suphuric
acid, which mixes with water in the pond and reduces its pH.
Correction of soil involves, repeated drying and filling to oxidise
pyrite, filling with water and holding till water pH drops to below 4 &
draining of pond.
Lime requirement during soil treatment
Amount of lime required X 100Kg
Soil pH Ag. Lime Calcite Dolomite Hydrated Lime Quick lime
CaCO3 (CaMg (CO3)2 Ca (OH)2 CaO
6.5 2.8 2.8 2.8 4.2 2.3
6.0 5.5 5.6 5.7 8.5 4.6
5.5 8.3 8.4 8.5 12.7 6.9
5.0 11.1 11.1 11.3 17.0 9.2
4.5 13.9 13.9 14.2 21.2 11.5
4.0 16.6 16.7 17.0 25.5 13.8
% efficiency 90.2 89.7 88.3 58.9 108.5
Similarly alkaline pH in pond water is corrected through gypsum (CaSO4)
and alum (Al2(SO4)3 . Liming is also done as a disinfecting agent in
pond with neutral soil pH and for correction of water pH or control
of turbidity in subsequent period of culture operations. Quick lime is
preferred during pond preparation for its quick and caustic action,
while calcite and dolomite are used for treatment and pH correction
of pond water during culture operation.
Soil & water Quality Management
Site characteristics like porosity, acidity, and high organic matter
content of bottom soils encountered during culture
operations.
Drying of pond bottom to crack between crops helps in aeration,
which enhances microbial decomposition of soil organic
matter. The porosity of the pond bottom is corrected through
bentonite, lining with plastic sheet at 0.3 to 0.5 m depth and
heavy doses of organic manures (cattle dung at 10,000 to
15,000 Kg/ha/year).
The water quality parameters required for optimum growth of
carps are pH 7.5-8.3, temp. 27-32oC, DO more than 4 ppm, total
alkalinity of 80-200mg CaCO3/L, secchi disk visibility of 25-30
cm, total inorganic nitrogen 0.5 to 1 mg/L and phosphorus 0.2
to 0.3 mg/L. Variation in these water parameters occur in
culture pond and need periodic correction/management
measures.
Soil & water Quality Management
Lime helps in improving alkalinity, hardness, controlling turbidity, and

reduces H2S build-up. Dolomite is particularly useful when
augmentation phytoplankton growth is required.
Aeration, a proven method for improving DO availability, also helps in
mineralization process reducing organic load.
Water exchange helps in reducing metabolic load. Addition of water into
pond, particularly during winter, helps in improving temperature
regime & prevents temp. stratification.
Turbidity with suspended soil particles can be controlled by cattle
manure (500-1000kg/ha), gypsum (250-500kg/ha) or alum (25-
50kg/ha).
Ammonia load in pond can be reduced through healthy growth of
phytoplankton or aeration.
The H2S build in pond can be subside through frequent water exchange.
Water Quality Management in Aquaculture
Basic requirement of fish culture, offers favourable environment for
growth, respires with DO and get food suspended in water.
Fish Culture is influenced by various physical, chemical & biological
properties of water.
Temperature- fish can perceive a small change less than 0.10C. IMC
thrive well in 18-380C. Max. temp. in afternoon and min. in morning.
Higher temp. reduces the DO level.
pH- Indirect measurement of hydrogen ion concentration in water, less
than 4 only CO2 is absent between 7 to 10 only bicarbonate are
present , and at 11 only carbonates are present, fish die at pH 11,
diurnal fluctuation is because of CO2 conc. Used in photosynthesis.
DO- Most imp. For survival of fish, gill is the site for exchange of
oxygen, reduction in DO reduces metabolism & restricts
development & growth, sources are photosynthesis & dissolution
from atmosphere, opt. 5-12ppm, loss of DO because of respiration,
decomposition, mineralization of organic matter and direct loss to
atmosphere. DO can be improved by adding water, recirculation,
use of aerators, KMnO , and beating water surface by sticks.
Aquaculture
Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic plants and animals in controlled
environments. Finfish and shellfish are grown in artificial containers such as
earthen ponds, cages and concrete or fiberglass tanks. The cultured organism
is reproduced and offspring raised in captivity. The young organisms are
stocked at a known density and fed a nutritionally complete diet to maximize
growth rate. Water quality is monitored to maintain a healthy environment.
Animals are harvested with nets when they reach market size.
Aquaculture includes culture of fish, crustaceans, mulluscs etc.
Types 1. Freshwater includes cold water fisheries
2. Brackish water- cultivation of seabass, mullets, shrimp etc
On the basis of management 1. Extensive
2. Semi-intensive
3. Intensive
Dissolved oxygen
Estimation by two methods
1. Electrometric method (By using O2 probe)
2. Chemical method (Winkle’s method) by titration
A- 365g MnSO4.2H2O or 670g MnSO4.4H2O make it 1L by adding DW
B- 500g NaOH or 700g KOH + 150g NaI or 300g KI+10g NaN2 make it to 1L
Take sample in BOD bottle (250ml), add 1ml A & B solution, shake it
vigorously to allow the concentrate to settle the ppt. of Mn (OH) 2 and
then add 1ml of Conc. H2SO4 then titrate it with Sod. Thiosulphate
(Na2S2O3) 0.05 N normality, it is made by adding 6.205g Sod.
Thiosulphate in1L DW.
Indicator- Starch (1g starch in 1L DW) + 0.5ml formaline as preservative.
Add around 3 drops of starch, blue colour appears, then titrate with Sod
thiosulphate till blue colour disappears.
Calculation- DO (mg/L or ppm) = N X V X 8 X 1000/Vs
N – Normality of Na2S2O3 V – Volume of used Na2S2O3 Vol. of sample
Plankton
1. Phytoplanktons – Imp. Primary producers, make their food itself by
photosynthesis process, but excessive growth reduces DO.
2. Zooplantons – Zooplanktons can not make their food, take
phytoplanktons and taken by fish.
Physical condition of water

Depth, Temp., Turbidity & Light Penetration
Depth – In shallow ponds, sunlight penetrates upto bottom which warm
up water & facilitate increase in productivity, shallower tan 1 m gets
overheated. A depth of 2 m is considered congenial from the
biological point of view.
Temp – all metabolic & physiological activities and life process such as
feeding and reproduction are greatly influenced water temp., also
affects the speed of chemical changes in soil & water, generally DO
decreases with increase in temp., it shows diurnal as well as
seasonal variation, IMC thrives well in 18.3 – 37.8o C, the upper lethal
temp. for air breathing fish is 39-41OC
Turbidity- may be either due to suspended inorganic sustances, such
as silt, clay or due to planktonic organisms, it is important limiting
factor in the productivity. Turbidity can be temporary i.e. caused
by rain flood etc. or perennial. Turbidity reduces light penetration
and hence reduce photosynthetic activity.
Selection of suitable site for aquaculture

It determines the feasibility of viable operation, it depends on two main
guiding factors, the water retention capacity of the soil and its
inherent fertility & also respond readily to organic and inorganic
fertilization. Besides these there should be dependable perennial
source of adequate water supply to fill the ponds at any time of
the year. Although site selection generally based on the species to
be cultured & the technology to be employed.
The general considerations in selection of suitable site depends on
agro-climatic conditions, market accessibility, suitable
combination, protection from natural disasters, availability of
skilled and un-skilled persons, public utilities, security,
meteorological & hydrobiogical information about the area such
as year temp., rainfall, evaporation, sunshine, speed & direction of
winds & floods, water table etc. have to be examined.
Selection of suitable site for aquaculture
In case of small scale aquaculture, it is necessary to determine
whether it has easy access to materials that can not be produce in
the farm and facilities are available.
Inland based soil characteristics, the quality and quantity of available
water and the ease of filling and drainage specially by gravity are
basic considerations for freshwater farms.
Swamps, unproductive agricultural land, valleys, streams, river beds
exposed into changes of water flow etc. land elevation and flood
level have to be ascertained. The max. flood level in the last 10
years or the highest astronomical tide should not be higher than
the normal height of dikes that has to be constructed into a farm.
Soil characteristics
Sandy clay to clayey loam soils are considered suitable for pond
construction. Texture & porosity are the two main imp. Physical
prosperities to be examined. Soil texture depends on the relative
proportion of particles of sand, silt and clay. Sandy loam soils is
considered best for diking. The size limits & some general
characteristics of the soil constituents are
Soil Dia. Of Gen. characteristics

constituents particles (mm)
Clay <0.002 Particles may remain suspended in water for a very long
period of time
Silt 0.002 – 0.05 Feels smooth & powdery when rubbed with gingers
Sand 0.05 - 2 These are individual particles, feels gritty when rubbed with
fingers
Sandy loam soils is considered best for diking.

Acid sulphate soil
Results from formation of pyrite, which is fixed and accumulated by the
reduction of sulphate from salt water, process invilves bacterial
reduction of sulphate to sulphide, partial oxidation of sulphide to
elemental sulphur followed by interaction between Ferrous (Fe++) or
Ferric ions (Fe+++) with sulphide & elemental sulphur. A sufficient
supply of sulphate & iron, high concentration of metabolisable
organic matter and sulphate reducing bacteria
Desulphovibrio desulfuricans & Desulpho maculatum in an anaerobic
environment alternated with limited aeration are the factors that give
rise to sulphate soils.
Basic consideration in the selection of species for culture
There can not be a universal fish species which can satisfy all the
desirable qualities, but which satisfies the most can be suggested.
1. Rate of growth – fishes which can grow larger size in shorter period,
because of this IMC are taken under carp culture in India.
2. Short food chain – Energy from primary producers to successive
consumers are in decreasing order therefore the fish having short
food chain like planktivorous are usually preferred. Eg. Silver & Catla
3. Adaptation to climate – Fishes adaptable to various climatic
conditions can be cultured in many areas than fishes in particular
area. Eg. Tout and Salmon cultured in Cold water opt. temp. 10-120C
whereas IMC in warm water opt. temp. 26-300C. But common carp
can be cultured throughout the world as it is adjusted to various
climatic conditions.
4. Tolerance to the fluctuation of physiochemical condition of water –
wide ranged tolerant fishes can be cultured more than narrow
ranged fishes. This have great importance in intensive fish culture.
Trout require DO of 9 mg/L, IMC 5-6mg/L, common carp 2-3mg/L,
likewise for BW fish the euryhaline nature of fish is important.
5. Acceptance of artificial feed – In intensive culture system the natural
food availability is not sufficient, therefore the fish which easily
accepts artificial feed should be preferred.
6. Resistance to common fish diseases & parasites – Although the fish
diseases are not uncommon, resistant fish are preferred.
7. Easily recruitment under controlled condition – To maintain fish culture
as a continuous practice, the assured availability of healthy and pure
seed from dependable source is imp. So the fish should breed easily
under controlled conditions. So IMC & exotic carps pref.
8. Amiability to live together – More imp. In polyculture or multi species
culture of fishes. Herbivorous fishes should not be cultured with
carnivorous & carnivorous fishes of different groups are not cultured
together likewise profuse breeding fish like Tilapia are not suitable
with carps.
9. Conversion efficiency – the fish which gives more edible flesh per
unit of food consumed in preferred than less ones.
10. Compatibility- The fish which are put in combination for culture
should not compete among themselves for space and food.
11. Consumer’s preference – The culture practice of fish is undertaken
should be in lined with local condition & consumer’s preference. Eg.
Orisa & west Bengal people prefer FW fishes than marine water
whereas in south people prefers marine fishes and Americnas prefer
catfishes than carp.
Besides these basic considerations other considerations like scaless
carp, reduced vertebrae bone, could etc. are also preferred.
Characters of culturable species of fish
The introduction focused on 6 (3IMC + 3 Exotic) carps.

Understanding the habits of fish, growth factor development, feeding &
their ecological conditions is of great practical significance to
fisheries production in India.
1. Catla (Catla catla)– It is the fastest growing indigenous carp,
conspicuous body, large head, upturned mouth, non-fringed lips,
back grayish colour, silvery on sides but tends to be dark in weedy
waters, fins large, scale pink, the fish attain sexual maturity in 2nd
year and ready to breed. Natural food is plankton floating on the
upper surface of the water, early stage food is zooplankton but later
also starts taking phytoplankton in its diet. Its capability to feed on
natural organisms based on its structure of mouth, so considered as
surface feeder.
2. Rohu (Labeo rohita) – Considered as tastiest among IMC, distinguished
by its relatively small or pointed head or terminal mouth with fringed
cover lips. Body elongated with moderately convex abdomen. Back is
brownish grey. Dull reddish scales on the sides and pink reddish fins.
The body is more linear than Catla. Sexual maturity is attained
towards the end of the 2nd year.
3. Mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala)– Next in importance to Catla & Rohu for
culture. Linear body, small head with blunt snout, sub-terminal mouth
with thin non-fringed lips, body silvery dark grey along back, fins
orange tinged with black. Grows slower than Catla & Rohu. Attains
sexual maturity in second year.
4. Silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix)– Body compressed, scale
small, mouth sub-superior with lower jaws rather upturned, eye
comparatively small situated below horizontal axis of body, gill
rackers densely interlaced connected & covered with a spongy sieve
membrane. Colour of body in alive condition is silvery white, dorsally
dark brown.
5. Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) – Large sized, body almost
cylindrical with flat head & brown abdomen, scales big, mouth in
front, lower jaw shorter, eyes small, gill rackers shorter & sparse,
comb like pharyngeal teeth. Dorsal fin short, dark brown back and
white abdomen.
6. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio)- 3 well knows varieties are
a. Mirror carp (Specularis)
b. Scale carp (Communis)
c. Leather carp (Nudus)
6. Common carp – Body compressed, dorsal projection in arc shaped,
round abdomen, mouth slightly downward with blunt snout and with
2 pair of barbles, on upper jaw lower pair a little longer. Long dorsal
fin scales thick and big colour of body in alive condition usually dark
grey or yellowish brown dorsally, lateral golden yellow. Apex lining of
caudal fin is slightly red.
Minor carps
1. Labeo calbasu– Commonly called as Kali Rohu. Body is bluish green,
small tapering head with sub-terminal fringed lipped mouth & 4 black
barbels. Dorsal fin with 12-13 branched rays. It is omnivorous, bottom
feeder in detritus and animals. Maturity and breeding habits are
similar to IMC. Common in Indian rivers and occasionally in
brakishwater.
2. L. fimbriatus- Commonly known as Cauvery carp. Deep body, fringed
lip, dorsal fin with 15-18 branched rays & presence of reddish spot in
the scales of middle row. It is bottom feeder and feeds occasionally
on filamentous algae and zooplankton, widely distributed in rivers of
south India.
Minor carps
3. Labeo kontius – Commonly called as Pig mouth carp. Deep slaty
colour, prominent snout, sub terminal mouth with fringed lower lips &
dorsal fin with 12-13 branched rays. Feeds in detritus, copepodes,
rotifers, algae, pieces of higher plants, widely distributed in rivers in
south India.
4. L. bata – Presence of greenish iridescence at the base of scales &
dorsal fin with 9-10 branched rays. It is omnivorous bottom feeder,
feeds on phyto & zooplankton and filamentous algae. It is distributed
in north Indian rivers up to Godavari.
5. Cirrhinus cirrhosa (white carp) – It has small head with blunt snout &
thin lips. Dorsal fin is 14-15 branched rays. The first fin rays are much
elongated. It has silvery body and scales with reddish dash (-) except
on the abdomen. It is bottom feeder on detritus & occasionally on
zooplanktons. Found in Godavari, Krishna & Cauvery.
6. Puntius sarana – It is omnivorous, feeds on detritus, filamentous algae,
micro vegetation, worms, insects, gastropods. It is common in east
Indian rivers.
Cat Fishes & other fishes – Wallago, Mystus spp., Singhi, Mangur,
Murrels, Tilapia, Prawns & cold water (sports) fishes.
Cat Fishes
The cat fishes are air breathing or live fishes. As they are capable of
directly breathing atmospheric oxygen air. They can live for a long
time without water & can therefore be transported live and fresh
condition over long distances. The body is without scales and each
of the upper and lower jaws possesses 2 pairs of long barbels in
each jaw, mouth can not be extended, having jaws with teeth. The
adipose fin may or may not be present. Majority of cat fishes are
predatory & cannibalistic feeding on the all pond animals including
fish fry.
Wallago attu (Freshwater Shark) – Large mouth beyond the eyes,
numerous teeth, absence of adipose fin, highly predatory so not
suitable for pond culture.
Mystus aor – adipose fin present, 1st dorsal fin reaching to adipose fin,
common in rivers and reservoirs of north India.
M. seenghala – 4 pairs of barbels, long upper jaws deeply forked caudal
fin, in which upper lobe is longer than the lower moderately sized
adipose fin, distributed widely in north Indian rivers.
Heteropneustes fossilis (Singhi) – adipose fin absent and rounded caudal
fin, besides animals it also feeds on algae, higher plants. It is suitable
Clarias batrachus (Mangur) – Adipose fin absent, elongated dorsal, long
anal & round caudal fin (identifying features). Dorsal fin is small,
feeding habits and distribution are similar to Singhi.
Murrels (Snake headed) – Air breathing, have good demand in market,
found in shallow and derelict swamp, suitable for culture in irrigation
canals & derelict swamps. They have a protected breeding season.
The peak breeding is associated with pre-monsoon months.
Channa marulius (Giant snake head) – Dorsal, anal fin are long & without
spines. Suitable for culture in ponds along with Tilapia. The young
ones of Tilapia serves as food for C. marulius.
C. striatus (stripped snake head) – Stripes are present on its body.
Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) – An exotic fish introduced in India
from east coast of Africa in 1952. It is characterized by an anterior
spiny dorsal fin & posterior soft dorsal fin. Male is identified from
female by its enlarged upper jaws. Maturity occurs even in 2 months
old individuals (monosex culture can be advisable). It breeds nearly 8
times in a year, female keep the fertilized eggs guarded in its mouth,
young ones acts as food for Murrels in Tilapia cum Murrel culture.
Cold water fishes (sport fishes)
Trout – Comes in order Salmoniformes,

Charateristics are -
1. Body is streamlined and covered with scales.
2. The Head is naked.
3. Have narrow gill opening and reduced gills.
4. Adopted to highly oxygenated water and freezing temperature.
5. They have great powers of locomotion, clinging and burrowing habits
6. They have modified mouth & lips for rasping food particles within
rocks, pebbles etc.
7. An adipose fin is present in addition to rayed dorsal fin.
8. The barbels are absent.
9. Trout feeds chiefly on insects, molluscs, small fishes. However they
are cannabalistic.
Brown trout (salmo trutta fario)
It is a river and lake fish of cold north hemisphere & got introduced to
Himalayan rivers of India.
Adipose fin above posterior part of anal, pectoral fin don’s reach the
base of pelvic, caudal fin emarginated, minute scales, deep brown
back with sides somewhat lighter. The upper part of head and body
above lateral line are marked with numerous dark spots, fins are
dark.
Rainbow trout (Onrhynchus mykiss or Salmo gairdnerii)
Introduced to Nilgiris & high ranges of Kerala from north America.
It has small mouth, positioning of adipose fin above the anal &
emarginated caudal fin, head and dorsal side are steel blue in colour
with a reddish band along the sides, belly is light coloured. It is
numerous dark spots above lateral line. The dorsal and caudal fin are
marked with dark spots, other fins are slightly pinkish, sides have
rainbow iridescence.
Mahseer
Belongs to order Cypriniformes
Tor tor (Red finned Mahseer)
It is a stout, sturdy fish, has deep body with small mouth & narrow gaps
and fleshy lips, deeply notched caudal fin. Maxillary barbels are
longer than rostral barbels, dorsal side is grayish green, lateral sides
are pinkish with greenish gold above & light alive green. Its belly is
silvery.
It is an omnivorous feeder on filamentous algae, weeds, insects etc.
It is commonly distributed in foothills of Himalaya, Bihar, West Bengal,
Assam and M.P.
Tor putitora (Yellow Finned Mahseer)
Commonly found in streams of Himalayas, head is broadly pointed,
length of head is greater than depth of body, male has enlarged lips
with two pairs of barbels of equal length, the pectorals are shorter
than head, caudal fin is sharply divided. It is an omnivorous feeder on
filamentous algae, insect larvae, water plants.
Tor khudree (Deccan Mahseer)
The depth of body is equal to length of its head, anterior most part of
body is pointed, has fleshy lips and deeply forked caudal fin. Dorsal
side and areas above lateral line are black & belly is creamy yellowish
white. Its feeding habit are similar to that of Tor tor.
Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis (Chocolate Mahseer)
It is a hill stream fish common in Eastern Himalayas & Assam. It has
thick lips, red eyes which distinguish it from other Mahseer. Its head
is higher than its width & has sub-terminal mouth, thick lips large
scale, caudal fin is deeply forked with pointed lobes. Dorsal surface
of body and head are green. It is omnivorous bottom feeder on
aquatic weeds, insects etc.
Coldwater Fisheries
Categorization of Coldwater fishes
on the basis of temperature
tolerance
• The temperature tolerance of coldwater fish lies at lower levels
of the thermal scale, which is of critical significance and plays a
crucial role in their dispersal in the uplands.On the basis of
temperature tolerance, the coldwater fishes are categorized as-
• Eurythermal- Having broad temperature tolerance range.
Example: Schizothorax richardsonii, Cyprinus carpio and

Barilius bendelisis.
• Stenothermal- Having a narrow temperature tolerance range,

nearly upto the freezing point of water.
Example: Salmo trutta fario, Salvelinus fontinalis.
• Thermal range for different fishes
• Snow trout (Schizothorax spp.) 5-25°C
• Mahseer 10-30°C
• For exotic trouts 4-20°C
• For exotic carps 7-32°C
Some Important Coldwater Fishes
• Schizothorax richardsonii
• Cyprinus carpio var. specularis
• Cyprinus carpio var. communis
• Tinca tinca
• Labeo dyocheilus
• Labeo dero
• Glyptothorax pectinopterus
• Barilius bendelisis
• S. longipinnis
• S. niger
• S. longipinnis
• Tor putitora
• T. tor
• T. khudree
• T. malabaricus
• Neolissochilus hexagonolepis
Fisheries
• Majority of coldwater fishes are caught individually by
local fishermen in rivers and streams and do not form
fisheries of commercial importance.
• Some fishes form the part of commercially important
food fishes, dwelling in uplands.
For example: Snow trout, Tor spp., common carp, Labeo
dyochelius and Labeo dero.
• Fish production in majority of hill states ranges from
20000 tonnes to 42,000 tonnes since 1996-97 to 2004-
05.
• An important aspect of coldwater fish of the uplands is
the opportunity the species provide for sport.
Culture of shell fishes of India
Giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)

It is the largest among freshwater prawn, found in all rivers of east and
west coast of India and coastal areas throughout Bay of Bengal. It
has long sword shaped rostrum with equal no. of teeth on both upper
and lower edges. It is benthophagic omnivorous. It migrates to
estuary during breeding season.
Monsoon river prawn (Macrobrachium malcolmsonii)

It is found in all peninsular rivers of India. The second cheilipedes of
female are much longer and stouter than the body. It also migrates to
estuary during breeding season.
FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE
SEED PRODUCTION AND
GROWOUT OF
GIANT FRESHWATER PRAWN
Mature male & female
Salinity 12 ppt (10 to 14 ppt) Seed Harvest

Hatchery Growout pond
Farm raised Scampi

(Freshwater Prawn)
PRAWN HATCHERY
Different practices of freshwater aquaculture
Monoculture - it is a practice of culturing one species of fish, in this
practice only one type of natural food i.e. phyto or zooplankton is
utilized. Culture of Catfishes, Murrels, Trout.
Stocking density is low, overall production and net income from
monoculture is less than polyculture practices.
Polyculture - It is culture of more than two species of fish at a time in

pond for efficient utilization of all available food at different trophic
levels and different layers of water. So as to achieve max. fish
production in the shortest possible time. It is also known as
Composite Fish Culture. Basic principles is that when compatible fish
species with different feeding habits are cultured together they
secure themselves in the most efficient manner. There is not any
serious competition among the species in fact one species may be
beneficial to other. The concept of polyculture originated in China
where 6 species culture is more popular in Chinese polyculture
system.
Composite Fish Culture
SEED PRODUCTION AND GROWOUT OF CARPS
INDIAN EXOTIC
Circular Growout pond

hatchery
Seed farm Harvest

Silver carp – Phytoplanton feeder – Surface feeder
Grass carp – Macrovegetation – Column feeder
Coomon carp – Omnivorous – Bottom feeder
Big head carp – Aristichthys nobilis – Macrovegetation
Bream – Parabremis pekinensis – Omnivorous
These fishes are cultured to get highest fish production.
Polyculture in India
Similar species are cultured, stocked in ration of 40:20:30:10
(Surface: Column: Bottom: Grass Carp)
Stocked at the rate of 10,000/ha
IMC – Catla – Zooplankton feeder – Surface
Rohu – Phytoplankton feeder – Column
Nain – Detritus feeder – Bottom
Exotic/ Chinese Carp
Management Practices
Pond Preparation – There are various aspects in ponds preparation which
should be carried out before pond is used for culture for first time &
for subsequent crops. The main objective of pond preparation are to
provide fish with a clean pond base & appropriate stable water
quality.
1. Cleaning – During fish production cycle considerable quantity of
organic waste accumulates in pond bottom depending upon the
cultural practices followed. Its waste must be removed to ensure
sustain fish production from the pond. There are two methods –
a. Dry method – In this method, after the final harvest the pond bottom
is dried and crack developed primarily to oxidize the organic
components, left over in the pond after the previous culture. The
pond bottom should be dried for at least 7-10 days & the soil should
crack to a depth of 2.5 – 5.0 cm. After drying the pond bottom is
ploughed up to a depth of 15 cm.
b. Wet method – In this method, after the final harvest, the accumulated
organic matter at pond bottom is flushed out in form of a thin slurry
using a heavy duty pump.
2. Liming – Advantages
a. It corrects acidity of water.
b. It helps to raise bicarbonate content.
c. It promotes decomposition of organic matter.
d. It supplies Ca, for growth of freshwater flora, molluscs,
crustaceans.
e. It helps to establish pH buffer system.
f. It utilizes the action of Sodium (Na+) & Magnesium (Mg2+) ions, due
to toxic and caustic property, it helps to kill harmful bacteria.
Pond fertilization
The main objective of adding fertilizers in fish pond is to maintain the
sustain production of natural fish food organisms during the entire
culture period.
Types –
1. Organic fertilizers
2. Inorganic fertilizers
Pre-stocking Preparation
• Soil tests
• Pre-flooding period depend on fish
species being stocked
• Water chemistry
– pH
– alkalinity
• at least 20 mg/L
– nutrients
• nitrogen and phosphorus
Fertilization
• Purpose is to promote the growth and
development of correct size and species of
zooplankton prey for fish fry.
Population Trends
? Copepods
3-4 weeks
Rotifers Cladocerans
1-2 weeks 2-3 weeks
Quality Zooplankton
• Species
• Size
– different fish species need different sizes of
zooplankton as first prey.
Organic Fertilizers
• Plant and animal materials
– zooplankton feed on organic or the
bacteria/protozoa feeding on organic
• Long-term application
• Selection criteria
– low carbon:nitrogen ratio
– fine particle size
– readily available and economical
Fertilizers Applications
• Inorganic Fertilizers
– liquid
• mixed into prop wash or mixed 10:1 (sprayed)
– powder
• soluble, blown onto pond surface
– granular
• fairly insoluble, placed onto shallow wooden platform 1ft
below pond surface
• Organic Fertilizers
– apply fertilizers completely around pond edge
– frequent application
Concerns Related to Fertilization
• Low oxygen levels (organic)
• Costs of either the product (inorganic) or
transportation (organic)
• Greater fluctuations in daily oxygen and pH
levels
• Increased aquatic vegetation levels
What fertilizer to use?
• Inorganic fertilizers for immediate results
• Organic fertilizers for long-term application
• Combination of both
Inorganic Fertilizers
• Limiting factor in freshwater systems is
often phosphorus
– in late summer, nitrogen may be limiting
• Fast acting
• Selection criteria
– adequate phosphorus and nitrogen
– economical and ease of application
• Chemical designation N:P:K
Water Quality Assessment
• Daily measurement of oxygen levels
• Weekly measurements of nitrogenous
variables and pH
– ammonia nitrogen
– nitrates
Zooplankton Monitoring
• Sample prior to stocking and every week
thereafter
• Samplers
– zooplankton net
– tube sampler
– pumps
– visual
• Desirable number -> 500+ animals/gal
Summary
• Establish large populations of desirable
zooplankton prior to stocking larval fish
• Maintain fertilization rates as long as
water quality allows
• Difficult to manage both large
populations of zooplankton and fish fry
• Assess water quality
Conclusions
• One recipe for all ponds is difficult
• Is there a marked improvement of fish
production over a pond’s natural
productivity?
• No need to fertilize ponds where fish are
being fed.
2. In organic Fertilizers – These are simple inorganic compounds which
primarily contain at least one or more elements of NPK. Commercial
inorganic fertilizers used for pond culture are the same as those of
agricultural crops. Due to their high solubility in water the nutrients
become readily available soon after their application.
According to composition chemical fertilizers are –
a. Nitrogen fertilizers
b. Phosphorus fertilizers
c. Potash fertilizers
a. Nitrogen fertilizers – They contain nitrogen and are available as
ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate and urea. The form of
nitrogenous fertilizers are selected on the basis of acidity and
alkalinity of pond soil. Nitrogenous fertilizers are particularly
essential for newly constructed pond ( because organic matter is not
present in pond bottom). The efficiency of N fertilizers is inhibited by
phosphorus deficiency.
It is best to maintain the P:N ratio as 1:4
b. Phosphorus fertilizers – Almost all fish ponds have phosphorus
deficiency. Phosphatic fertilizers are most effective & favourable for
fish culture.
- Superphosphate are most suitable in water, di-calcium phosphate is
partially soluble in water, rock phosphate is almost insoluble in
water, single super phosphate (SSP) is extensively used and easily
available, generally phosphatic fertilizers are held in soil and its
action is extended to subsequent years of its application.
c. Potash fertilizers – Potassium remain available in required quantity in

natural water. It is commonly available in form of Muret of Potash
(K2CO3) & Sulphate of Potash (K2SO4).
The favourable action of Potassium fertilizers can be seen in ponds
with low alkalinity. In general for ponds in which phytoplankton
production is rather slow, this fertilizers may be applied. It also
improves the hygienic condition of pond.
Advantages of applying inorganic fertilizers
1. Exact composition of inorganic fertilizers is advantageous.

2. Mineralization is very fast, giving quick effect on pond productivity.
3. Lack of pollution.
4. No BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) is required for chemical fertilizers
or in other words there beneficial effect on oxygen content.
5. Used in small quantity and applied as additive manures. Hence
convenient for utilization.
Nutrient profile of some common manures & fertilizers
Sl. No. Manures/fertilizers N% P% K%
Manures of animal origin
1. Raw cow dung (RCD) 0.6 0.16 0.45
2. Pig Dung (PD) 0.6 0.45 0.50
3. Duck droppings 1 1.4 0.62
4. Poultry excreta 1.6 1.5 - 2 0.8
Manures of plant origin
1. Mustard oil cake 4.5 2.0 1.0
2. GNOC (Ground nut) 7.8 1.5 1.3
3. Mahua oil cake 2.5 0.8 1.8
Inorganic
1. Urea 43-46
2. Ammonium nitrate 20.5
Phosphatic
1. Single Super Phosphate(SSP) 16-20
2. Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) 40-45
Potash
1. Muret of Potash 48-62
2. Sulphate of Potash 47-50
• Fertilization in fish pond starts 10-15 days prior to seed stocking
depends upon the nutrient status & chemical environment of pond
soil.
• Proper analysis of soil & water is essential before deciding
fertilization schedule.
Nutrient status of different types of soil pond
Productivity pH N Potash Organic

level (mg/100g of soil) P2O5 (mg/100g of carbon (%)
soil)
High 6.6 - 7.5 50 6 - 12 1.5

Medium 5.5 - 6.5 25-49 3-5 0.5 – 1.4
Low Below 5.5 Less than 25 Less than 3 Less than 0.5
Amount of fertilizers @Kg/ha/year
High Medium Low
Raw cow dung 5000-8000 8000-10000 10000-25000
Urea 112-155 156-225 226-260
Ammonium Sulphate 225-330 - -
Calcium Ammonium Nitrate - 350-500 501-650
Single Super Phosphate 150-219 220-315 316-405
Triple Super Phosphate 54-75 76-110 111-145
Fertilization Schedule
Quantity (Kg/ha) Periodicity of application
Raw cow dung (RCD) 2000 Initial
1000 Monthly
Urea (6.5-7.5) 25 Monthly
Ammonium Sulphate (>7.5) 30 Monthly
Cal. Ammonium Nitrate (5.5-6.5) 30 Monthly
Single Super Phosphate (SSP) 20 Monthly
Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) 8 Monthly
In general
Urea = 140
Triple Super Phosphate = 60
In 4 to 6 installments
Food and Feeding Habits
The thorough knowledge about food and feeding habits of culturable
varieties of fishes taken for culture is one of essential factor for
successful fish farming. The food resources in ponds are varied in
forms for which a judicious combination of species for rearing is
essential.
The natural food of fishes is classified into 3 groups
1. Main food.
2. Occasional food.
3. Emergency food.
1. Main food – It is the natural food, which the fish prefers under
favourable conditions, in which it grows best.
2. Occasional food – Food which is consumed when main food is not
available.
3. Emergency food – Food ingested when preferred food items are not
available & on which just survive.
According to Nikolskii, the natural food on fishes are classified into 4
categories on the basis of gut analysis
1. Basic food – which comprises the main part of gut contents.
2. Secondary food – which is found frequently on gut contents but less
in quantity.
3. Incidental food – which rarely found in the gut contents.
4. Obligatory food – which is consumed in absence of basic food.
However, on basis of characteristic of diet, fishes are classified into –
a. Herbiovorous
b. Phytophagus
c. Detritophagic
d. Carnivorous
e. Predatory
f. Omnivorous
g. Coprophagus
On basis of tropic level, fishes are grouped into-
Plankton or Filter Feeder – Catla & Silver Carp.
Column Feeder – Rohu.
Bottom Feeder – Nain.
Usually Herbivorous, Carnivorous show definite peak period in feeding,
while omnivorous show little variation throughout the year.
Factors influencing feeding
1. Temperature – Rate of feeding, metabolism and growth are affected
not only by the ability of food but also by water temperature. IMC &
exotic carps shows less food intake when water temperature falls
below 150C and below 8 – 100C the fish specially Silver & Grass Carp
almost stop feeding.
IMC have tolerance range of 17.5 to 380C, whereas Grass Carp have
tolerance up to 400C.
The suitable temperature for Chinese Carps is 20 – 320C.
2. pH – When pH of water drops below 5.5 metabolism lowers rapidly &

apatite of fish is affected. This ultimately affects the ingestive
variation (Food intake) of fish.
However the cultivable carp adapt themselves to weak alkaline water of
pH 7 to 8.5.
3. Oxygen – The optimum range of pH for food intake is 6 to 7 ppm.

Fish seed transportation & Stocking
Fish seed
collection
from rivers
Techniques standardized for the riverine spawn

collection nets in terms of their shape size and
mesh-size to suit different hydrological
conditions.
Why collection & transport of spawn
The spawn of the IMC is collected from flooded rivers during
the monsoon months by means of shooting nets. The
collection of spawn is highly localized. However farming
of fish can be carried out almost anywhere in the most
diverse habitats and climatic conditions- in ponds, lakes,
reservoirs etc. This clearly indicates that there is a need
to transport fish spawn or fry from its collection centre in
the place of fish farming.
Fish seed
transportation
The traditional practice of transporting fish seed

in earthen pots (hundies) used to cause heavy
mortalities. Techniques developed for packing and
transport of spawn, fry and fingerlings in
polythene bags with oxygen, it has enabled to
minimize the mortality rate to the great extent.
Transport under oxygen
Traditionally, fish seed transportation was done in earthen hundies, half filled with river
water, wherein about 10,000 to 15000 live spawn were kept for transportation
(Approx. 30 ml). Gradually the earthen hundies were replaced by aluminium ones.
These hundies were manually carried on slings. As the oxygen demand of live
spawn is high, periodic splashing of water is done to aerate it for enriching supply of
dissolved oxygen to the spawn. These methods are still practiced in eastern India
and invariably result in 30-40% mortality of spawn over long distance
transportation.
The method of packing live fish seed under oxygen for transportation developed. In this
technique a plastic bag of about 300 guage is supported in a container, usually
used Kerosene or vegetable oil tins, improvised to have a hinged cover with a latch
and locking facility. The bag is filled up to one-third with ambient water, and
according to the time required for transport, 50,000 to 1,00,000 spawn are packed
in one tin. The bag is then emptied of air and by means of an oxygen cylinder, slow
release of oxygen is done to bloat up the plastic bag to fill the tin. It is then firmly
tied and the tin is trasported.
Improvisations in the packing (transport by rail/truck/air)
Instead of used tins, new GI sheet tins are used nowadays,

which have a longer life specially for transport by
rail/truck, etc. For trasportation by air, either tins are used
or thermocoale sheet packing is done in corrugated
cardboard boxes, which are light and hence, the freight
expense are less. However, the oxygen-filled plastic bag
for spawn is basically utilized in each case.
Such methods are also used for trasportation of fry and
fingerlings produced in hatcheries. The number of seed
packed per tin however, is different. About 1000-1200 fry
(20-30mm) or 500 to 600 fingerlings (40-50mm) are packed
per tin for a 24 hours journey.
Fish seed stocking in ponds
Carp spawn transported from hatchery is acclimatized in
nursery pond and released during cool hours of the day,
i.e. in the morning or evening. Acclimatization is an
important aspect for spawn survival and needs attention
to avoid any abrupt change in water quality, importantly
temperature and pH.
Generally mono-species rearing of spawn is practiced in carp
nursery. Stocking density of the spawn is determined
based on the pond productivity & the type of management
measures to be followed. The stocking density in earthen
nurseries normally ranges between 3-5 million/ha.
However it can be increased to 10 million/ha with better
management measures. With proper pond management
survival of 40-50% of fry is normally achieved in earthen
nursery at the end of 15-20 days.
Fish seed stocking in ponds
In earthen rearing ponds, usually stocking density followed is 0.2-
0.3 million fry/ha, which can be further increased in ponds with
facilities for water circulation/exchange and/or aeration etc.
within 2-3 months of rearing fry grows to fingerling of 80-100
mm in length, normally survival of 60-70% is achieved in
rearing ponds with proper management.
In grow out culture ponds in low-input system stocking of carp
fingerling up to 3000/ha
Generally a density of 5,000- 10,000 fingerlings/ha is kept as a
standard stocking rate in carp polyculture for a production
target of 3-5 tonnes/ha/year. In seasonal ponds or where water
level becomes limiting during summers, it is reduced to 2,000-
3,000 fingerlings/ha to obtain higher growth.
With provision of water exchange and aeration, higher target fish
production level of 10-15 tonnes/ha/year are achieved by
resorting to stocking ponds at a density of 15,000-25,000/ha.
Fish Food Organisms & their Production
Plankton – It is a collective term applied for very minute (microscopic)
extremely diverse forms of organisms both plants and animals. That
are floating at the will of wave and other water movements. The
plankton occurs in all natural waters as well as in artificial
impoundments like Ponds, Tanks, Reservoirs etc.
The term plankton was coined by Victor Hensen (1887). The single
planktonic organism called Plankter.
The plankton community is comprised by organisms of plant origin –
Phytoplankton, Animal origin – Zooplankton.
Phytoplankton – These are represented by all the classes of algae i.e.
Chlorophyceae (Green algae), Cyanophyceae (Blue green algae),
Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms), Euglenophyceae, Pyrophyceae.
Zooplankton – are represented mainly by
1. Protozoa 2. Rotifera 3. Crustacea
Majority of zooplankton population in inland water is comprised by
Rotifera, Cladocera and Copepoda
However in Certain water bodies Ostracode may also present in sizeable
proportion.
Phytoplankton
The main group of phytoplankton are
Oscillatoria Ceratium Euglena

Blue-green algae Dinoflagellate Dinophyta Euglenoids
Cyanophyceae Euglenophyta
Uroglena Cymbella Pediastrum

Diatoms
Golden algea Chrysophyceae Bacillariophyceae Green algae Chlorophyta
Zooplankton
There are 3 main groups of Zooplankton
1. Ciliata (Protozoas) 2. Rotatoria (Rotifera)
Paramecium Keratella
3. Crustacea
Daphnia Eudiaptomus Nauplius

Classification of Plankton
1. On the basis of size –
a. Macroplankton – Visible by naked eyes.
b. Netplankton – Caught by bolting silk net no. 25 of mesh size 0.03 to 0.04 mm
c. Nanoplankton – Smaller than netplankton.
2. On the basis of distribution
a. Limmnoplankton – Found in lake
b. Heleoplankton – Found in pond
c. Rheoplankton / Potamoplankton – Found in running water
d. Halioplankton – Found in salt water
e. Hypalmyroplankton – Found in brakishwater
3. On the basis of Origin –
a. Autogenic plankton – Plankton produced locally
b. Allogenic plankton – Introduced from other locality
4. On the basis of content
a. Euplankton – True plankton
b. Psedoplankton – Debris
5. Life history
a. Haloplankton – Free floating throughout life
b. Meroplankton – A part of their life is free floating
Plankton community undergo mark seasonal fluctuations in various
types of Inland water bodies. Population density of plankton is an
indicative of productivity of water bodies. High population of both
phyto and zoo plankton are observed in nutrient rich ecosystem. A
mean phytoplankton biomass of 10mg/m3 in euphotic zone is
indicative of high eutrophic condition.
The population of zooplankton is also largely depend on phytoplankton
population, majority of rotifers, Cladocera and population of
Copepods is dependent on phytoplankton for food. Besides
phytplankton, zooplankton also invariably utilize detritus organic
particles.
Rotifers being small in size, as compared to Cladocera & Copepoda
serve as food for the fry, in the early stages.
The Population of phytoplankton is mainly dependent concentration of
nutrients specially nitrogen & phosphorus. Under very high nutrient
condition, phytoplankton often form bloom. Most common bloom
forming species are
Euglena, Chlorella, Chlamydomonas, Microcystis, Anabaena,
Oscillatoria
Excessive population of phytoplankton are often main cause of
organic pollution. The plankton population is also dependent
on temperature, rate of grazing and predation.
Plankton constitute the most important part of food chain in

aquatic ecosystem most of energy in grazing food chain is
transferred to Plankton.
Under culture condition, the fertilization of pond is routinely to

raise population of plankton so as to provide more amount of
natural food.
In the intensive culture and rearing of spawn, the natural food in

the nursery soon gets exhausted. To compensate for this
depletion, the desired species of Rotifers are cultured
separately and introduced into the nursery pond.
Culture of fish food organisms

Culture of fish food organisms
The earlier stages of shell & finfish are known to feed protein
rich zooplankton such as Brachionus plicatilis, B. rubens,
Euchlams spp. Daphnia carinata, Moina spp. Ceridaphnia spp.
Artemia salina (Brine shrimp)
Culture of Diatoms
Navicula, Chlorella, Cyclotella spp. It can be undertaken in
simple test tube to large outdoor tanks. Monoculture of
Diatoms spp. Serve as an ideal food source for zooplankton
culture and also for fish larvae in indoors & outdoors.
1. Sterilization of glasswares – Cotton plugs, glasswares such as
Petridish of 5-10 cm diameter, test tubes and flasks of 1-2 L
capacity etc. are first cleaned with chromic acid or chlorate
sulphuric acid followed by repeated rinsing in distilled water &
sterilization in autoclave under a pressure of 7kg/cm2 for 30
min.
2. Preparation of medium – The culture medium is prepared with
various salts and is sterilized in an autoclave, cooled & kept
ready.
3. Culture in test tube or Petridish – In each of sterilized test tube a
known quantity of the above medium in introduced aseptically & the
tube is cotton plugged. Similarly a pair of suitable Petridishes, one
fitting over other is taken & in the lower dish a known quantity of
medium is introduced aseptically and covered immediately with
other Petridish. The live diatom shells are sorted out from planktons
sample obtained by the filtration of pond water with a plankton net,
with the help of a binocular microscope & pipette. These cells are
identified & washed repeatedly in the sterilized nutrient medium in
5-6 watch glasses. The cells after repeated washing, transferred
to test tube or Petridish containing medium.
The culture should be exposed to light from a fluorescent tube. The sub-
cultures are made periodically & the cultures of test tube are then
transferred to flasks (1-3L) capacity, containing the nutrient enriched
medium.
Before inoculating the flask with test tube cultures, it is necessary to
record the number of cells/ml and volume of cultures. Further when
the cells are in exponential phase of growth. The cultures should be
harvested & transferred to larger culture tanks.
Controlled culture Simple culture bottles
Rotifer culture
Test tube & Petri dish

4. Batch culture - This involves mass culture of diatoms in outdoor
circular tanks having 500 L capacity. The bottom of these tanks
slopes to a central outlet for empty.
The outdoor tanks containing filtered freshwater, filled with
fertilizer- mixed in the composition of Ammonium sulphate
(100g/m3), super phosphate (15g/m3), & Urea (5g/m3).
The prepared cultures are transferred to these outdoor tanks & are
maintained for 1-2 days. It would be better if the tanks are
placed in areas without direct sunlight.
Mass culture of Zooplankton
It includes culture of Rotifers and Cladocerans. It is undertaken in circular tanks of
5000 L capacity, & kept in areas with artificial light or diffused sunlight and covered
with polythene sheets.
Before use, the tanks are steam cleaned & filled with about 1000 L of Diatom culture,
where the number of cells would be about 106 cells/ml. The tank is then inoculated
with Rotifers & Cladocerans, collected either from the cultures already maintained
or from the natural sources at the rate of 10 individuals/ml.
The Rotifers or Cladocerns are harvested with a net of fine bolting silk, when they attain
density of 100 organisms/ml. This requires about a week. These are then
transferred to fish & shellfish larval rearing tanks or frozen for future use.
Cladocerans culture
Hatching of Artemia cyst
Culture of Artemia
Artemia is commonly known as Sea monkey or Brine shrimp.
Inhibits in Salt Pan Waters (>200ppt salinity). The eggs/ Cyst
are of commercial importance as the hatched Nauplii, serve as
an ideal protein rich food source to many fish & Prawn Larvae
in culture system.
In laboratory, Artemia cyst allowed to float on the surface of

filtered normal sea water, where they hatch in 24-48 hours
depending upon the atmospheric temperature. Eggs can also
be incubated in a solution containing two full spoons of
common salt mixed in 1 L of freshwater.
Hatching of Artemia cyst – about 250g cysts are sprinkled in 100 L
of seawater (30-35ppt salinity). Vigorous aeration & suitable
temp (26-300C) may fasten hatching process. The hatched
Nauplii could be attracted using a light source & collected by a
very fine meshed net. They are either transferred to culture
chambers containing fish or prawn larvae as live food or can
be stored frozen as Rotifers and Daphnia.
Algal culture
Aquaculture animals have to obtain all their nutritional
requirements through food which they consumed. In Nature,
most of them subsist on live foods consisting of plants and
animals obtained from the environment. The initial source of
food for many larval organisms is phytoplankton. This is
associated with the size of the larvae at hatching. After a
certain period of time the larvae of most species can be fed
mostly on zooplankton or a combination of plant and animal
matter. It is possible to obtain both types of food from nature.
But is will be more convenient to culture algae under
controlled condition for hatchery use.
An algal culture system generally consists of 3-4 main stages,
starting with and maintaining stock culture from which
cultures are made at regular intervals, in small flasks (50 ml
volume), followed by culturing carboys (12 L) or tanks (300 L).
Stock cultures can be maintained in small screw top test tubes
(that can be autoclaved for sterilization) using low level
enriching media for maintenance rather than heavy growth.
Algal culture
A 12 hours photoperiod is considered enough for Diatoms. The
incident light level requires for stock culture is 750-1000 Lux.
Which can be provided by two 30-40 watt cool white
fluorescent bulbs placed in front of stock culture tubes. A
temperature of about 240C is maintained, after about a month
the stock culture should be transferred in aseptic condition, to
create new culture lines.
In 2nd culture phase – Aliquot (of 2ml) of stock culture are used to
inoculate autoclaved small flask (125 ml). The light intensity
about 1500 Lux is necessary though aeration may not be
necessary. The flask should be shaken to reduce shading. A
four days old flask culture is used as inoculum for the next
phase of culture.
The next phase of culture in Carboys (12-20 L capacity) with an
autoclavable stopper fitted with an air supply line & a screw
top inoculation tube. The latter enables more or less aseptic
inoculation of cultures & the aeration pipe reduces settling of
cells on the bottom.
Algal culture
After 4 days of growth, in carboys the final phase of culture can be started. For this
larger fibre glass tanks are used. While for laboratory use 300 L tanks may be
suitable. For commercial farms, larger tanks of about 1 ton capacity will be
necessary. Circular or rectangular tanks painted white are often preferred,
illumination is provided by a series of 40 watt fluorescent bulbs suspended
directly above the tanks. Constant illumination & aeration with air stones or
other devices for adequate circulation are necessary.
Several methods are available for harvesting algae, high density cultures can be
concentrated by centrifugation. Harvesting is done by siphoning off the
supernatant or by skimming cells of surface as applicable. Centrifugation of
algal cultures can be performed with standard dairy cream separator. The rate
of flow of culture from the bowl to the centrifuge head is adjusted according to
species of algae & centrifugation rate of separator. The algae deposit on wall
of centrifuge head has to be removed and suspended in water where possible
live algae are directly pumped into larval tanks. When necessary concentrated
cultures are frozen for storage.
Aquatic insects and their control
Aquatic insects constituted about 4% of total insect fauna, which exist in the
world. Aquatic insects either in their adult or larval stage prey directly on carp
spawn or injured the young ones by sucking body fluid or indirectly competing
for food with carp spawn. Therefore, the pond culture technique includes the
control & removal of harmful aquatic insects. Such eradication of harmful
insects from ponds play a very important role in increasing fry survival rate.
However, common insects found in the culturable ponds being smaller in sizes, can
not make any harm to rather bigger sized fish including fingerlings & yearlings.
Thus removal or control of insects in stocking pond is not compulsory. Out of
11 orders of Class Insecta - 3 orders 1) Hemiptera 2) Coleoptera 3) Odonata
are relatively common in freshwater ponds.
The important families with examples under different orders are -
Family Example
1. Notonectidae a. Notonecta (water boatman or backswimmers)
b. Anisopes
2. Belostomidae a) Belastoma (Giant water bug)
3. Nepidae a) Nepa (Water scorpion)
b) Ranatra (Water stick insect)
Water Scorpion Water Boatman
Giant water Bug
Water Scavenger Beetle Backswimmers

Order - Coleoptera
The important families with examples under different orders are -
Family Example
1. Dytiscidae a. Cybister (Diving beetle)
2. Hydrophilidae a) Hydrophilus (Scavenger beetle)
b) Sternolophus (Water scavenger)
3. Gyrinidae a) Gyrinus
b) Dineutes (Whirling beetles)
Order – Odonata Dragon fly nymph
Order – Hemiptera
Includes water bugs, are relatively more dangerous as their complete aquatic
life both larval as well as adult stage. They have very strong piercing type
mandibles.
Intensity of predation
- Cybister consumes about 15-20 fry of 20-40 mm in 24 hours.
- Anisopes & Ranatra consumes 182 and 122 carp spawn respectively in 24 hours.
- Dragon fly nymph consumes about 7 fry in 3 hours & 24 spawn in 24 hours.
- These bugs secrete toxic salivary substances which kill the prey.
- Sternolophus & Gyrinus suck body fluid and even sometime kill spawn and fry.
Control measures
Simple way of controlling is by netting but complete removal is not possible by
netting. Application of Oil Soap emulsion in ratio of (56:18)/ha (56 L oil & 18
Kg Soap per ha) is an age old practice. It is recommended to apply 12-24
hours before releasing the spawn. The oil film float over the surface of water.
Mode of action of soap-oil emulsion

These insects periodically come to surface regularly for breathing atmospheric
oxygen by raising their tracheal tubes over water surface. Oil films enter into
tracheal tube and damages respiratory system of insects by blocking.
Method of application
Soap & oil are heated and mixed into homogenous solution and then it is
sprinkled over water surface manually. Addition of soap or any detergents
helps to form thin film with micro droplets at the surface.
1. Kerosene oil – 80 – 100 L/ha

2. Diesel – 1000 ml in 200 m2 area
3. Turpentine oil @ 75 L/ha used to kill most of the insects in 30 min.
4. Buton @ 1 - 2 ml / L for 25 m 2
Sampling and harvesting
Periodical sampling is performed to know the length weight,

growth rate, feed utilization, and also to avoid disease
outbreak in pond through taking preventive measures which
are ensured by proper management of the soil-and-water
quality, following proper feeding schedule, use of balance
feed, periodic sampling for health check, and minimising
outside influence on the pond.
Sampling by cast net

Harvesting of fry
It is done during cool hours preferably at morning or evening. The fry harvested are usually
kept in crowded condition under shower for 2-3 hours in hapa fixed in same nursery-
pond. This facilitates their release of faecal matters, minimising faecal load during
transportation.
Harvesting of fingerlings
Within 2-3 months of rearing, fry grows to fingerling of 80-100 mm in length. Fingerlings are
effectively harvested by using drag-net of suitable mesh size. Morning hours with low
temperature is the most preferred time for harvesting. Normally survival of 60-70% is
achieved in rearing ponds with proper management. Fingerlings can be further reared
in rearing pond to obtain bigger juveniles. However, in such a case, the population
has to be thinned out. One of the recent concepts followed in fingerling rearing is to
raise seed at higher stocking density round the year with low rate of feeding so as to
obtain stunted seed. This method ensures round the year availability of fingerlings for
stocking in grow-out ponds. Further grow-out pond stocked with stunted fingerlings
are reported to give better survival rate; higher feed utilization efficiency and higher
production than those stocked with normal ones. Stocking with stunted fingerlings has
been increasingly in practice in Andhra Pradesh (Kolleru lake region) where
fingelings grown to juveniles of 150-250 g size in separate adjacent ponds are
stocked in grow-out culture ponds.
Harvesting of grow-out pond
Generally carps are harvested after a grow-out period of one year during
which it reaches marketable size of 0.8 - 1 kg. However, these carps
are even marketed in smaller sizes of over 300g except that of silver
carp; the marketable size for which is over 1 kg. In multi-harvesting
system, the fishes attaining market size are periodically harvested
from the pond, releasing back the smaller ones for further growth.
While intermittent harvesting are done by drag net of suitable mesh
size, final harvesting is done by complete draining of pond.
Based on the production cycle, the carp culture can be of single stocking –
multiple harvest and multi stocking-multi harvest or rotational type
culture. Single stocking- single harvest method of culture is usually
done for 6 months to 1 year. Such method is followed in traditional &
semi-intensive practices. Semi-intensive method also makes use of
single stocking-multiple harvest method where comparatively higher
stocking density maintained than that of single stocking-single harvest.
As fish biomass in the pond increases, larger fishes are partially
harvested at monthly intervals. In multi stocking-multi harvest,
marketable size fishes are harvested from pond at regular intervals
with periodical restocking.
Harvesting fish from ponds with
an internal harvesting sump
Sorting
Size grading while seine
of fish performed to getharvesting
higher returns
Cull-harvesting or sampling is an opportunity
Market sized fish can be kept alive while harvesting continues

Cull-harvesting fish several times before drain harvesting increases the yield of market-sized fish
Harvesting fish using a brailer
Harvesting salmon from net cages

Harvesting & marketing
Carps produced from culture ponds are mostly sold in local market,
either in live or dead condition. The Indian major carps are also
transported to adjacent deficit areas as well as to distant places,
even 2000 - 3000 km away from the production site, in insulated
vans with ice. Fresh fish fetches about one-and-half-times higher
market price than iced ones. The price in the domestic market is
influenced by demand and supply.
The last few fish may have to be caught by
hand, especially when the pond does not
drain well
If you are not marketing your fish alive,

you should kill-chill them in a bath of iced
water immediately after harvesting to get the
best quality Bird predation causes problems during drain
harvesting
Supplementary feeding survival & growth
The natural productivity of pond, irrespective of the level of its
augmentation through fertilization, is not capable to sustain a
higher level of fish biomass in semi-intensive grow-out. Due to the
limitation in availability of natural food in pond at higher stocking
density, the energy requirement for somatic growth can be met only
through provision of supplementary feed. Mixture of ground
nut/mustard oil cake and rice bran at 1:1 has been commonly used
in carp culture. Vitamin & mineral requirements of fish are normally
met through intake of natural food ( at least 50% of the diet) by
carps.
With shift towards intensive fish culture, recent years, formulations of
balanced feed have received considerable attention. Several
balanced feed formulations have been developed making up
deficient essential amino acids, fatty acids and incorporating
vitamins and minerals. All these ingredients are blended together at
required proportion for preparation of carp feed. The commercial
production of supplementary feed is usually in pellets of different
diameter, to provide higher water stability, consumption and
utilization by the fish.
Supplementary feeding survival & growth
Underfeeding depresses fish growth while overfeeding results in

wastage of food, leading to deterioration of water quality. As feed
cost constitute more than 60% of the recurring expenditure in carp
culture, feed management, is an important aspect for ensuring
optimum growth of carps and limiting production cost, besides
maintenance of pond aesthetic condition. The recommended
practice is to provide feed at 3-5% of body weight of stocking
material initially and subsequently at sliding scale from 3 to 1 %
In grow-out ponds, survival level usually reduces to around 80% during
initial 2 months of culture, beyond which survival remains almost
constant in properly managed ponds. Therefore, survival
percentage of 70-80% is considered for estimation of biomass. The
daily ration is adjusted according to the biomass estimated from
monthly sampling. The daily ration is provided in pond preferably in
two splits during morning and evening in feeding trays or perforated
gunny bags suspended at regular intervals in pond. Grass carps
are provided with aquatic vegetations at periodical intervals.
Aquaculture of
Aquaculture of carp
carp
Silver carp
Bighead carp
Common carp
Grass carp
INTEGRATED FISH FARMING
It may be defined as the association of two or more normally separate farming systems
which become part of the whole farming system. The major features of this system
include:
• Recycling of waste or by-product in which the waste of one system becomes the input
of other system.
• Efficient utilisation of farm space for multiple production.
Integrated livestock-fish, poultry-fish, and rice-fish farming and crop rotation in fish ponds
have been well developed and practised in countries like China, Hungary, Germany and
Malaysia. Indian freshwater aquaculture has been largely organic-based, with inputs
derived from activities of agriculture and animal husbandry with plants and animal
residues forming the major component of feeds and fertilizers in carp polyculture. India
being an agrarian economy, produces large quantities of plant and animal residues.
Activities like mushroom cultivation and rabbitry, silviculture, apiculture, etc. apart from
providing for diversification of farming systems, also provide huge quantities of organic
material, that may become resources in the aquaculture system. The agro-based
industries like distilleries and food processing pants also produce the effluent that could
be recycled to aquaculture apart from the well known resource-domestic sewage.
INTEGRATED FISH FARMING
INTEGRATION OF FISH WITH

AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE
AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Paddy cum fish culture Fish cum horticulture
Fish-duck culture Cattle on pond dyke Poultry shed on fish pond Pig site on dyke
ECOSYSTEM OF INTEGRATED FISH FARMING
Integrated fish farming system works in following way:
• Trapping of solar energy and production of organic matter by primary producers.
• Utilization of primary producers by phagotrophs or tertiary consumers.
• Decomposition of primary producers and phagotrophs by saprotrophs or osmotrophs.
• Release of nutrients for producers.
The animal waste in water body enter into the food chain in three different ways
• Feed
Certain bottom feeders like Cyprinus carpio and Cirrhinus mrigala directly utilized the organic
particles which are generally coated with bacteria along with other material.
• Autotrophic production
Some of the decomposed portion of waste products provides nutrients for the micro-flora
(autotrophs), while non-mineralised portion provides food base for bacteria and protozoa
(heterotrophs). Temperature, light, micro and macroflora, inorganic nutrients, carbon,
phosphorous and nitrogen are the basic inputs required for photosynthesis process.
• Heterotrophic production
Micro fauna (zooplankton) feed on small manure particles coated with bacteria. In the process,
bacteria is digested while rest is excreted. In this heterotrophic production system micro fauna
(protozoans and zooplanktons) are produced finally shortening food chain. This system of
production is not linked with the process of photosynthesis.
Advantages of integrated fish farming systems
Integrated fish farming systems utilise the waste of live stock, poultry
and agriculture byproducts for fish production. About 40-50 kg of organic manure
can produce 1 kg of fish. Fish farms having an integration with mulberry
cultivation, sericulture and silk extraction from cocoons allow the pupae to be
utilised fish feed and the worm faeces and wastewater from the processing
factory to be used as pond fertilisers. Pond silt can be used as fertiliser for
fodder crops which in turn can be used to raise live-stock and poultry or as fish
feed. Thus a recycling of waste is done in integrated fish farming system.
The scope of integration in a fish farm is considerably wide. Ducks and
geese may be raised on the pond, pond dykes may be used for fruit plants and
mulberry cultivation or for raising pigs, cattle, and dyke slopes for fodder
production. From integrated fish farming systems not only fish but meat, milk,
eggs, fruits, vegetables, mushrooms etc. can be obtained. This system fully
utilizes the water body, the water surface, the land, and the pond silt to increase
food production for human consumption.
1. RICE - FISH SYSTEM
Fish culture can be used in conjunction with rice cultivation to increase productivity.
Rice fields form the natural habitat for a larger variety of indigenous species of fish which gain
entry only from the nearby perennial water bodies. The fishes feed and grow on natural food
available and the farmers usually collect the fish during rice growing season and/or when the
water level subsides. In eastern India, rice cultivation varies due to impaired drainage.
Field design of rice-fish plots

The rice fields which retain water for a fairly long duration and free from flooding are generally
suitable for rice-fish integration. Some modification of rice-fish plot is required to make the
system more profitable. Clay soil is suitable. A peripheral, trench is excavated around the rice
growing area (width 3.5 - 4.0 m, depth 1.5 m) which is blocked at one place and connected to the
main land for easy access for farmers and agricultural appliances to the rice plot. The rice plot
may range from one acre to one hectare or more and preferably be rectangular or even square.
A dyke is constructed all around.
For a 1 ha plot area required for dykes, trenches, pond refuge and field will be:
Dykes 2000 sq. m. (20%)
Trenches and pond refuge 1300 sq. m. (13%)
Field 6700 sq. m. (67%)
Modifications in size may be made as per availability of available land.
Culture methods
Improved varieties of rice like Panidha, Tulasi, CR 260-77 are cultivated in season which
have tolerance to submergence and pest attacks. Fertilization schedule includes 40 kg
N. and 20 to 30 kg each of P2O5 and K2O/ha at the time of seeding, besides FYM at 5
to 10 t/ha.
Fish and Prawn

Catla, rohu, mrigal and common carp in combination with freshwater giant prawn are
stocked in equal proportions @ 10,000 individual/ha. These are fed with rice bran and
mustard groundnut oil cake @ 2-3% of the total body weight. Manuring schedule
includes application of cow manure at 10 t/ha/yr, while liming is done @ 200 to 500
kg/ha. These are harvested periodically along with receding water levels.
Horticulture on the dykes

After the harvest of rice certain crops which require lesser amount of water like water
melon, groundnut, vegetables, cow pea, money etc. can be grown. Top of the bund
which is 10% of the pond area is utilised for growing vegetables and fruit bearing plants.
Rice-fish system results in 168% intensity of cropping in field and 400% on
bunds as compared to 52% in the case of traditional monocropping of rice. Rice-fish
system provides a net annual income of around Rs. 30,000/ha in the first year which
accounts for about twelve folds income over farmer’s traditional practices and three folds
over the improved monocropped rice.
This system encourages synergism between rice and fish leading to increase in
grain yield by 5-15% and straw yield by 5-9%. It facilitates crop diversification, thereby
reducing investment risk. It promotes gainful linkage between rice, fish, prawn,
vegetables, fruit crops and other resulting in better resource utilization as well as
conservation of the ecosystem. It generates year-round employment in the farm.
Aquaculture practices
On the basis of management intensity, fish culture can be classified into:
1. Extensive culture - Selected species is stocked into properly

prepared pond. Use of fertilizers and supplementary feed is in
limited extent. Production is very low.
2.Semi-intenstive culture - Stocking is done in moderate density.
Formulated compound feed is provided as per nutritional
requirement from external sources.
3. Intensive culture - Stocking is done with hatchery reared seed
in high density. Water quality is maintained by frequent
exchange together with constant aeration. Food requirement is
met fully with formulated feed. Production is high.
4.Super-intensive-High stocking density with total water exchange
through biological filter. Constant water quality monitoring,
aeration and encapsulated pelleted diet is provided. Feeding
and stocking manipulation is done. Production is very high.
Different Aquaculture Practices
1. Monosex culture - Separate sex of individual species are cultured, Ex-Tilapia
2. Air-breathing fish culture - Derelict shallow water bodies with poor oxygen
content are utilized for culturing air breathing fishes like Singhi, Mangur,
Murrels (Channa spp.).
3. Predatory-Prey culture - Can be undertaken in shallow and swampy area. In
which carnivorous fish like murrels are cultured along with their prey fish
Tilapia.
4. Raceways - In running water systems like streams, series of rectangular,
circular earthen or cemented tanks are constructed for fish culture.
5. Sewage fed fish culture - In this, sewage water is treated in oxidation ponds
and subsequent water used for fish culture.
6. Circulatory system culture -This system can be placed in areas of water
scarcity. Fishes are cultured in ponds/tanks where water is re-circulated
through biological filter, and other filter and finally disinfected.
7. Ornamental fish culture - Coloured fish such as Gold fish - Xiphophorus
auratus, Guppy fish - Lebistes reticulatus, Molly - Molliensia latipinna are
cultured in aquarium or pond.
Different Aquaculture Practices
8. Culture of fish food organisms - Mass culture of protein

rich live fish food - Cladocerans, Rotifers, Tubifex, Insects
have been found essential for larval stages of fin and shell
fish.
9. Sport fish culture - In this cold water species are cultured
in upland water. Examples - Trout and Mahseer.
10. Integrated fish farming - It is multi community fish
farming in which fish are cultured with agricultural crops,
live stocks, and Poultry. This is AAA system - Agriculture
Crops, Animal Husbandry and Aquaculture.
Culture of fish in Raceways, Cages & Enclosures
Raceways - Raceways are designed to provide a flow through system to rare much
denser population of animals. Abundant flow of good quality well oxygenated water is
essential to provide respiratory requirements and to flush out metabolic waste
particularly ammonia.
Raceways are comparatively small in size and occupy much lesser space than ponds.
They are made up of reinforced concrete of cemented ponds. Earthen raceways can
be coated with plastic material to reduce loss of water through seepage. The main
source of water is streams and deep well boring.
In designing a raceway a slope of 1 to 2 % is preferred for water flowing from one end to
another end. It is generally advisable to have water supply reserve for emergency. A
storage reservoir near the beginning of raceways system from where water can flow
into raceway by gravity would be most useful. It is important to have water control
structure to regulate the flow and depth of water discharge from the bottom of
raceways and include screen to prevent loss of stock. Removal of water from bottom
helps in flushing of metabolic waste and increase oxygen content. It is essential to
adjust the rate at which water is pumped into raceway in order to prevent overflow or
emptying for cleaning raceway bottom. In emergency, a suitable suction device can
be used.
Limitations
Such closed systems has certain limitations because of
1. More demand of energy and power for water flow.
2. The production is dependent on water flow.
3. Species of fish such as Carps, Trout, Catfishes, Tilapia, Eels
and Seabass are taken.
These systems are also used for rearing fingerlings.

Cages
The cage culture was first started in Cambodia from where such practices transfer to
Thailand then to Indonesia, Vietnam and Japan. The significance of cage culture
become more relevant for those countries where suitable water supply and land for
fish culture are becoming less available.
Types of Cages :
There is no fixed design or the size of cage for culture. They are made of galvanized
welded wires and nylon meshes in USA, Japan etc.
In India – the cages is made of split bamboo and are of various size ranging from few
square meters to 15 sq. meter. For Carp culture a Cage is 2 meter deep and for
marine fishes it is 3-5 m deep. The shape is generally rectangular and the cage may
be stationary fixed to some strong poles. For free floating, steel drums or empty
barrels or synthetic floats are used. The size of mesh is small in Cages in which fry
are cultured. These are called as Rearing Cages. However, as fry grows to fingerling
they are transferred to Stocking cages, which have large sized mesh (4 cm) to allow
free circulation of water through cages. The no. of fingerlings to be stocked depends
upon size, depth, surface area of cage and the species of fish to be cultured.
Fish Species cultured in Cages
There are about 50 species of marine and freshwater species to be cultured. The
species which are generally cultured in cage in various country are –
Common Carp, Tilapia, Pungasius, Clarias spp., Channa spp., Trout, Anabas,
Notopterus etc.
Stocking Density
Depends on carrying capacity of the water (water spread area and quality),
water exchange, species of fish & quantity. The stocking rate for rearing
Spawn to fry – 10,000 /m2
Fry to fingerling – 2800 /m2
Fingerling to advanced fingerling – 300/m2
However, it is believed that fish stocking at initial stage should occupy 45% of
cage volume so that fish can have normal growth. The artificial feed eating
fishes occupy 85-90% of total stocking density & natural food eaters occupy
10-15% in cage culture.
Pen & Enclosures
The most effective and suitable type of enclosure used for aquaculture is one formed by
damming a bay, estuary or rivers. Sites are selected where barriers can be
constructed across narrow section or channels in order to reduce cost and easy
operation. There may be two or two series of barrier – one up-stream and one down
stream. The dams are constructed with stones, earth or concrete. They hold screens
to allow free flow of water.
Pen culture was taken on commercial scale in Leguna de Bay and San pablo Bay, lake
Philippines from 1968. For rearing Milkfish.
Presently, commercial pen culture of fish is being done in Philippines, Indonesia, China
etc. the species are Milkfish, Grass carp, Big head, Silver carp, Tilapia etc.
Modern Pens are constructed by Nylon or Polythene mesh nets instead of traditional
split Bamboo. The nets are attached to fixed post set at every few meters and the
bottom of net is buried in substrate.
Limitation of Enclosures – Strong water current, turbulence, wind and wave action are
not congenial.
Fish Pen at Bay
Cage culture
Air-breathing fish culture
Culture systems of air-breathing fishes such as murrels (Channa spp.), magur
(Clarias batrachus.), singhi (Heteropneustes fossilis) and koi (Anabas) in open ponds
and cage culture of singhi and murrels have been developed. Air-breathing fishes, owing
to their unique taste, are considered a delicacy for fish consumers, but production of
different indigenous air breathing fishes through aquaculture has been unexplored in
India. These fishes grow in shallow ponds and tolerate higher water temperature and
thereby sturdy to withstand dry summer spell.
Existing shallow, d e r e l i c t , seasonal, stagnant ponds could be e f f e c t i v
ely
u t i l i s e d for a sizeable production of air-breathing f i s h e s with low input, as could
be the specially constructed ponds i n the proximity of irrigation canals with flowing
water, or tube-wells for production of as much as 80 tons of Clarias and
Heteropneustes /ha/6months with intensive operations. Air-breathing f i s h culture in p
a r t i c u l a r is oriented t o shallow water environment and is essentially a low input,
high yield technique; the production is commensurate with the intensity of management.
There is no requirement for f e r t i l i z e r s or manure. The only material inputs are the
fingerlings and the feed, and in case of intensive operation, the water management is an
essential input.
Clarias batrachus (Mangur)
Well known as mangur and is the most preferred indigenous catfish and is hardy in
nature. It is an annual breeder, which spawns during mansoon in large water logged
areas with accumulation of rainwater. In nature, it shows parental care. Female
scoops nest and fertilized eggs are deposited in the nest. Such natural simulations
are made for natural breeding of Clarias spp. in South-East Asian countries for
getting stocking material.
Maintenance of healthy brood fish is a prerequisite for successful seed production in

captivity. Usually, this species attains maturity in one year with 100-150 g in weight
and can be employed for breeding. Mangur usually breeds in mansoon during June-
August. The fishes are taken out of brood stock ponds and kept separately in plastic
containers breeding operation. Males and females can be distinguished by the
secondary sexual characters. The abdomen of a gravid female is round and bulging
with a reddish colour vent having round and button-shaped genital papilla, and the
males have elongated and pointed papilla. They are either bred through hormonal
administration or through environmental manipulation.
Clarias batrachus induced breeding
Females are induced bred through commercially available synthetic hormones, i.e.
Ovaprim/Ovatide/WOVA-FH @ 1.0-1.5 ml/kg body weight or carp pituitary extract at
30mg/kg of body weight. The stripped eggs are fertilized artificially with sperm
suspension. However males do not require hormonal injection. Unlike carps males of
this species do not ooze sperm on its own, and thus they are cut open at abdomen,
testes are removed and macerated keeping it in normal saline solution (0.9% sodium
chloride) to get sperm suspension which could be used within 24 hour at room
temperature.
Females are stripped after a latency period of 15-17 hours and eggs are fertilized with
sperm suspension. The fertilized eggs are then washed thoroughly and transferred
to flow-through hatchery. The eggs of this species are adhesive in nature, and light
brown eggs are considered good while white are unfertilized. Ideal temperature for
hatching is between 170C and 300C, and hatching takes place between 24-26 hr.
SEED PRODUCTION AND GROWOUT OF MAGUR
Aquatic weed control Air-breathing fish culture

Clarias batrachus culture
The earthen ponds/stone pitched ponds/cemented tanks are suitable for grow-out
culture of mangur. Generally, high density of 50,000 – 70,000/ha is recommended for
culture of this fish. Bigger size seeds (5-10g) show good survival and growth during
culture. The fishes are fed at 3-5 % of body weight with pelleted feed in feeding
basket placed in different places on the pond.
Since the fish is an air-breather, they normally come up to water surface for gulping
atmospheric-oxygen. This kind of habit attracts birds for predation. Therefore, it is
required to cover ponds with net to protect catfishes. The fishes attain a marketable
size of 100-120 g during culture period of 7-8 months. Harvesting is done by
complete dewatering and picking them manually from culture ponds. Production to
the tune of 3-4 tonnes can be achieved from 1 ha of water-area.
Food, feeding & growth of air-breathing fishes
Air-breathing fishes in nature are known to be carnivorous. But Clarias and
Heteropneustes subsist on organic detritus when stocked in a heavily silted swamp.
However, in culture operations the species responded excellently to supplementary feed
consisting of dried marine trash fish, oil-cake, rice bran, compost and manure in various
combinations and proportions. With dried marine trash fish and rice bran in the ratio of 2
: 1 for the first three months, and in the ratio of 2 : 3 during the remaining period of 5
months, the culture period indicated a conversion ratio of 1.5 : 1 for Clarias.
The addition of biogas slurry helps in reducing the trash fish component in the
feed, thus economising culture operations. In nature, the Clarias attains a weight of 80-
90 g in one year; whereas in culture operations with intensive feeding the fish can attain
over 250 g in a 6-months growing period. Feeding of Heteropneustes under culture could
be only rice bran and biogas slurry under semi-intensive culture whereas, fish meal
could be advantageously incorporated under intensive operation. Murrels, however,
have to be fed with dried trash fish or dried silk worm pupae.
Sewage-fed fish culture
Sewage is the liquid waste discharged from domestic and industrial sources
within an area. It is reutilized for culture of fishes like rohu, mrigal and catla.
effluent
Sewage & waste To irrigation
waste stabilisation Water Fish pond Fish

Fig. dilution pond
utilising sewage.
pond Over flow
Fig. Fish pond utilising sewage

City sewage is extensively used for fish culture. Before sewage is let in to a
pond, it is diluted with the fresh water so as to maintain the dissolved oxygen
content and reduce other toxic substances
Sewage-fed fish culture
The wastes, including sewage and waste water produced by the human
community hold high potential for fish production. In India itself there are about
150 sewage-fed fish farms covering an area of about 12 000 ha. Very high
production in the order of 7–10 tonnes/ha/yr has been obtained from ponds fed
with sewage which invariably contains high percentage of N,P,Ca,K etc. An
average production of about 7 t/ha/yr is easily obtained using a mix culture of 5
carp species (Ghosh et al., 1985).
The sewage fed ponds are generally dewatered completely during
summer so as to remove all the carnivorous fishes. The pond is initially fertilized
by introducing partially treated sewage effluent upto about 75–80 cm and then
clean water is pumped in to raise the pond water level to 1.5 m. Within a month
the pond stabilises with respect to dissolved oxygen and becomes suitable for
stocking with fish seed. During raising of marketable size fish, additional
fertilization with sewage effluent is carried out in small doses every month and
the pond is netted frequently to help oxygenate the water and in course of
netting the marketable size fish are also harvested.
REUSE OPTION OF WASTEWATER
• Wastewater Reuse for Aquaculture is long practiced
technique. Nutrients present in waste water act as
fertilizers to produce natural food such as plankton.
Also a source of nourishment for the aquatic species
for direct water consumption.
• Series of ponds can be manually constructed for the

treatment purpose. Channels of treated effluent are
the source of water supply for the fish ponds.
• Raw wastewater can be used for aquaculture,

serving as a source of income as well as food for
personal consumption.
WASTEWATER REUSE FOR AQUACULTURE
Assessment of Positive & Negative Aspects
Positive aspects
• Reliable source of income generation from
market of fish consumers.
• High nutrient content reduces cost on fish
food.
• Increases fish yield.
• Meets food demand of fish growers as well.
• Serves as a low cost sanitary disposal
method of wastewater.
• Provides ancillary job opportunity
Negative Aspects
• Health risk with bioaccumulation of toxic

chemical in untreated wastewater
• High Nutrient loading in wastewater increases
growth of Phytoplankton's & Algae that in turn
decline in fish population
• High Concentration of Ammonia increases fish
mortality rate
• Waste water provides excellent breeding place
for mosquitoes and disease causing vectors
• Health impacts finally translate into economic
impacts
Induced
breeding
Composite
Fish culture
Integrated
fish farming
Paddy cum fish culture
Pig cum fish culture

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"Freshwater Aquaculture" (FAC-211) : Books

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“Freshwater Aquaculture”

Fish harvest from a cage

Fish feed pellets Harvesting fish from a pond

China harvested 71% of total

Sushi with black

Japan is the leading

1. Application of modern aquaculture techniques.

Lime helps in improving alkalinity, hardness, controlling turbidity, and

Physical condition of water

Selection of suitable site for aquaculture

Soil Dia. Of Gen. characteristics

Sandy loam soils is considered best for diking.

Characters of culturable species of fish

The introduction focused on 6 (3IMC + 3 Exotic) carps.

Trout – Comes in order Salmoniformes,

Example: Schizothorax richardsonii, Cyprinus carpio and

• Stenothermal- Having a narrow temperature tolerance range,

Giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii)

Monsoon river prawn (Macrobrachium malcolmsonii)

Mature male & female

Salinity 12 ppt (10 to 14 ppt) Seed Harvest

Farm raised Scampi

Polyculture - It is culture of more than two species of fish at a time in

Circular Growout pond

Seed farm Harvest

c. Potash fertilizers – Potassium remain available in required quantity in

1. Exact composition of inorganic fertilizers is advantageous.

Nutrient status of different types of soil pond

Productivity pH N Potash Organic

High 6.6 - 7.5 50 6 - 12 1.5

2. pH – When pH of water drops below 5.5 metabolism lowers rapidly &

3. Oxygen – The optimum range of pH for food intake is 6 to 7 ppm.

Techniques standardized for the riverine spawn

The traditional practice of transporting fish seed

Instead of used tins, new GI sheet tins are used nowadays,

Oscillatoria Ceratium Euglena

Uroglena Cymbella Pediastrum

Daphnia Eudiaptomus Nauplius

Plankton constitute the most important part of food chain in

Under culture condition, the fertilization of pond is routinely to

In the intensive culture and rearing of spawn, the natural food in

Culture of fish food organisms

Test tube & Petri dish

In laboratory, Artemia cyst allowed to float on the surface of

Water Scavenger Beetle Backswimmers

Order – Odonata Dragon fly nymph

Mode of action of soap-oil emulsion

1. Kerosene oil – 80 – 100 L/ha

Periodical sampling is performed to know the length weight,

Sampling by cast net

Market sized fish can be kept alive while harvesting continues

Harvesting salmon from net cages

If you are not marketing your fish alive,

Underfeeding depresses fish growth while overfeeding results in

INTEGRATION OF FISH WITH

Field design of rice-fish plots

Fish and Prawn

Horticulture on the dykes

1. Extensive culture - Selected species is stocked into properly

8. Culture of fish food organisms - Mass culture of protein

These systems are also used for rearing fingerlings.

Maintenance of healthy brood fish is a prerequisite for successful seed production in

Aquatic weed control Air-breathing fish culture