TEE3211 Drives

1
Chapter 1
Electronic Drives
Course Outline
The following areas will be covered during our course of study:
Power Electronic Devices:- Characteristics, drive requirements and device protection.
Converters: - DC-DC; DC-AC; AC-DC and Control Techniques
Power and distortion factor; Harmonics and interference
Applications of AC &DC motors:- motor control: variable speed drives, regenerative breaking, slip energy recovery, four
quadrant operation
1.1 Power Semiconductors Converters
The technique for controlling the electric machines has changed in significant ways. For example series DC motor are used to propel
subway cars. The speed of these cars has been controlled by use of resistances in series with the dc motors as shown in figure below. In
recent years there has been use of Choppers, which can convert a fixed voltage into a variable dc voltage hence controlling the speed of
the car.
Using the appropriate converters can also control other electric machines. The following being the various types of converters that are
frequently used to control electric machines:
AC Voltage Controller (AC to AC): - an ac voltage controller converts a fixed voltage ac to a variable voltage ac. It can be used to
control the speed of an induction motor (voltage control method) and for smooth induction motor starting.
Controlled Rectifier (AC to DC): - A controlled rectifier converts a fixed voltage ac to a variable voltage dc. It is used primarily to
control the speed of dc motors such as those used in rolling mills.
Chopper (DC to DC): - A chopper converts a fixed voltage dc to a variable DC. It is used primarily to control the speed of DC motors.
Inverter (DC to DC): - An inverter converts a fixed voltage dc to a fixed (or variable) voltage ac with variable frequency. It can be used
to control the speed of ac motors.
Cycloconverter (AC to AC): - A cycloconverter converts a fixed voltage and fixed frequency ac to a variable voltage and variable
(lower) frequency ac. It can be used to control the speed of ac motors.
High power semiconductor devices are used in these converters to function as on-off switches. The characteristics of these devices will
be looked at first.
1.2 Power Semiconductor Devices
The power semiconductor devices generally used in converters can be grouped as follows:
Thyristors (SCR)
Power transistors
Diode rectifiers
These devices are operated in the switching mode so that losses are reduced and conversion efficiency is improved.
1.2.1Thyristor (SCR)
2
The Thyristor has a four layer p-n-p-n structure with three terminals, anode (A), cathode (K), and gate (G) as shown in figure 2
below. The anode and cathode are connected to the main power circuit. The gate terminal carries a low level gate current in the
direction from the gate to cathode. The Thyristor operates in two stable states: ON or OFF.
Volt Ampere Characteristics
With zero gate current, if a forward voltage is applied across the device (anode positive with respect to cathode) junctions 1 and 3 are
forward biased while j2 is reverse biased and therefore the anode current is a small leakage current. If the anode to cathode forward
voltage reaches the critical limit called the forward breakover voltage (VBO) the device switches into high conduction. The device is
said to be latched I
L
. Latching current is defined as the minimum anode current that a Thyristor must attain during turn on process to
maintain conduction when the gate is removed or current required to maintain regeneration. If gate currents are introduced the VBO
is reduced. For a sufficiently high gate current the entire forward blocking region is removed and the device behaves as a diode.
When the device is conducting the gate current can be removed and the device remains in the on state.
If the anode current falls below the critical limit called the holding current I
h
, the device returns to its forward blocking state. See the
I/V characteristic
Switching Characteristics
If a Thyristor is forward biased and a gate pulse is applied, the Thyristor switches on. However, once the Thyristor starts conducting
an appreciable forward current (regeneration taking place), the gate has no control on the device. The Thyristor will turn off if the
anode current becomes zero called natural commutation or is forced to become zero called forced commutation.
It is necessary to keep the device reverse biased for a finite period of time before a forward anode voltage can be applied otherwise if
applied at a less time it would conduct. This period is known as the turnoff time, t
off
of the Thyristor. The turnoff time of the
Thyristor is defined, as the minimum time interval between the instant the anode current becomes zero and the instant the device is
capable of blocking the forward voltage.
3
See fig 3 below for the switching characteristics of a Thyristor
The Thyristor is switched on
by a gate pulse i
g
and when the gate pulse is applied at instant t
1
, anode current I
A
builds up and the voltage across the device V
AK
falls. When the device is fully turned on the voltage across it is quite small (typically 1 to 2.5V, the higher voltage drop for higher
current devices) and for all practical purposes the device behaves as a short circuit. The device switches on very quickly, the turn-on
time ton being typically 1 to 3microseconds. Typically the gate pulse is in the range of 10 to 50microsec and its amplitude in the
range 20 to 200mA. If the current through the thyristor is to be switched off at a desired instant t2, it is momentarily reverse biased
by making the cathode positive with respect to the anode. For this forced commutation a commutation circuit is required as shown
later. In most commutation circuits a precharged capacitor is momentarily connected across the conducting thyristor to reverse bias
it. If the device is reverse biased, its current falls, becomes zero at t3,,then reverses and becomes zero at t4. at instant t5, the device is
capable of blocking a forward voltage. The time interval from t3 to t5 is known as the turnoff time of the thyristor. If a forward
voltage appears at instant t6 the time interval t3 to t6 is known as the circuit turn-off time, tq. In practical applications, the turnoff
time tq provided to the SCR by the circuit, must be greater than the device turn-off time toff by a suitable safety margin; otherwise
the device will turn on at an undesired instant, a process known as commutation failure.
Thyristors with large turnoff time 50-100microsec are called slow switching or phase control type thyristors and those having small
turnoff time (10-50microsec) are called fast switching or inverter type thyristors.
Note that during thyristor turn on, if the voltage is high, current is low and vice versa. Therefore the turn on switching loss is low.
During thyristor turnoff also, if the reverse current is small, the turnoff switching loss is low. The low switching loss in a thyristor is
a significant advantage, particularly for high frequency applications
1.2.2 TURN ON METHODS
With anode positive with respect to cathode a Thyristor can be turned on any one of the following techniques
a) Forward voltage triggering
b) Gate triggering
c) dv/dt triggering
d) Temperature triggering
e) Light triggering
Points a) and b) have already been dealt with
c) dv/dt triggering: - if the rate of rise of anode cathode voltage is high the charging current of the capacitive junctions j1,j2, and j3
may be sufficient to turn on the thyristors. However a high value of charging current may damage the Thyristor and the device must
be protected against high dv/dt.
d) Temperature triggering: - During forward blocking most of the applied voltage appears across the reverse biased junction J2. This
voltage associated with leakage currents may raise the temperature of this junction. With increase in temperature, leakage current
through J2 further increases. This cumulative process may turn on the scr at some high temperature
e)Light triggering: - A niche is made on the p-layer as shown below. When the niche is irradiated by ,free charge carriers (holes and
electrons ) are generated just like when the gate signal is applied between the gate and the cathode
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1.2.3 Gate Characteristic
As an approximation, gate to cathode junction can be taken as a PN diode and its V/I characteristic will approach that of a diode see
figure below
This information can be used to sketch the gate characteristic and triggering region of a Thyristor.
Gate characteristic of Thyristor
For a particular type of SCR Vg and Ig characteristic has a spread between two curves, Upper and Lower limit. Ox and Oy refer to
minimum gate current and voltage to trigger the Thyristor. Vgm and Igm are maximum permissible gate voltage and gate current. Oa
non-triggering gate voltage. The preferred gate drive area for an SCR is bcdefghb.
All spurious or noise signals should be less than the voltage oa . The design of a firing circuit can be carried out with the help of
figures below.
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Considering fig a Es =Vg + IgRs. A resistance R1 is connected across gate cathode terminals so as to provide an easy path to the
flow of leakage current between SCR terminals.
If Igmn and Vgmn are the minimum gate current and gate voltage to turn on SCR then from fig b , current through R1 is Vgmn/R1.
Es =(Igmn + Vgmn/R1)Rs+Vgmn =IRs +Vgmn
Using gate circuit of higher magnitude can reduce the SCR turn on time. Gate drive requirements can be obtained from the graph
below:
AD is the load line
Curve 3 is for a thyristor whose Vg/Ig give the operating point S and Vg=PS and Ig =OP. To minimize the turn on time and
unreliable turn on, the operating points may vary between S1 and S2 and must be close to the Pgav curve as possible. The gradient of
the load line AD =OA/OD will give the required gate source resistance Rs.
The minimum value of gate source series resistance is obtained by drawing a line AC tangent to Pgav.
With pulse triggering, greater amount of gate power dissipation can be allowed. This should however be less than peak
instantaneous gate power dissipation Pgm.
Pulse gating
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fT
P
P P Tf P P
T
T P
gav
gm gav gm gav
gm

1
.
where f=1/T1 =frequency of firing and T= pulse width. In the limiting case
P
gav
/fT =P
gm
.
A duty cycle is the ratio of ON time to periodic time fT
T
T
= =
1
.
Example
Given the gate cathode characteristic of an SCR to be having a straight-line slope 130. If the trigger source voltage is 15V and the
allowable gate power dissipation is 0.5watts. Compute the gate source resistance.
Solution
V
g
I
g
=0.5W ..(1) and V
g
/ I
g
=130 V
g
=130I
g
..(2) Substituting 2 into 1 gives:
V mA x I V mA I I
g g g g
06 . 8 62 130 130 62 5 . 0 130
2
= = = = =
Now for the gate circuit E
s
=I
g
R
s
+V
g.
15 =62mA*Rs + 8.06 Rs =112
Example 2
The trigger circuit of a Thyristor has a source voltage of 15V and the load line has a slope of 120V/A. The minimum gate
current to turn on the SCR is 25mA.
Determine :
a) Source resistance required in the gate circuit,
b) The trigger voltage and trigger current for an average gate power dissipation of 0-.4W
Solution
a) The slope of the load line gives Rs =120
b) VgIg =0.4W and for the gate circuit Es =RsIg +Vg 15=120Ig +0.4/Ig Ig =38.6mA or 86.4mA Vg =10.37V or
4.63V. Choose Vg =4.627V and Is =86.4mA.
1.2.4 Parallel and Series Operation of Thyristors
To accommodate high load currents a parallel connection of thyristors can be used. If the simple connection is used fig (a) then
differences in the individual thyristors will result in an unequal current sharing of current between them. This sharing can be evened
out by careful selection of matched devices , by the use of series resistance as in fig (b) or by including current sharing reactors
fig(c).
Fig b is shown below:
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Example
Two thyristors are connected as in fig a above and have forward characteristics when conducting of the form:
Thyristor 1 v= 0.96 +2.52 *10
-4
i1
Thyristor 2 v= 0.92 +2.40 *10
-4
i2
i) What will be the current distribution between the two thyristors when the total current is 1400A.
ii) What value of resistance added in series with each thyristo will result in the thyristors being within 5% of each other for
the same total current?
Solution
i) V= 0.96 +2.52 *10
-4
i1=0.92 +2.40 *10
-4
i2 and i1 + i2 = 1400
Hence 0.96 +2.52 *10
-4
i1=0.92 +2.40 *10
-4
(1400-i1)
Giving i1 =601.6A and i2 =798.4A
iii) Maximum current =1400A hence Maximum current difference =5%*1400=70A . We noted from above i2 is greater
than i1 hence
i2-i1 =70A and i1+12 =1400A
2i2 =1470 i2=735A and i1=665A
0.96 +2.52 *10
-4
i1+Ri1 =0.92 +2.40 *10
-4
i2 +Ri2
R=0.445m
Transient or Dynamic Current Sharing
If current through T1 rises Ldi/dt across L1 increases and a corresponding voltage of opposite polarity is induced across inductor L2.
The result is a low impedance path through T2 and the current is shifted to T2. The reverse is true
At turn on the thyristors gate circuits must all be driven from the same source to force a simultaneous turn on of all devices. To
prevent any individual thyristors from turning off if its current falls below its holding current level , a continuous gate signal is
normally used to ensure immediate re-firing.
Where high voltage levels are encountered thyristors are connected in series to share the voltage. If the connection shown below is
used then the differences between devices can result in an unequal voltage sharing between them.
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R1 C and R2 C are for dynamic situation. R is used to try and equate the voltages sitting on the thyristors and the determination of R
is based on the following diagram and assumptions.
Assumptions:-
1) there are n thyristors
2) The value of R is a maximum to limit the current
3) Consider the case that T1 has a negligible leakage current and others have maximum leakage current Ileak. This is the
worst case and it indicates that the voltage V2 sits across all thyristors except T1 .
4) The source voltage Vs is the maximum that can be applied when R is used.
5) The value of V1 across T1 is the peak voltage rating of the thyristors .That is the maximum voltage T1 will support i.e
T1 will support a larger voltage than the remaining (n-1) thyristors which share voltage equally.
From Kirchhoffs voltage law Vs =V1+V2(n-1)1 and from Kirchhoffs current law Is1 =Is2
+Ileak.2
Also from Ohms law Is1 =V1/R.3 and Is2 =V2/R ..4.
Eliminating V2, Is1 and Is2 we have from 1 and 4 Vs =V1 +V2(n-1) but V2 =Is2 R Vs =V1 +Is2R (n-1).
From 2 Is2=Is1-Ileak Vs =V1 + (n-1)(Is1-Ileak)R
R =(nV1-Vs)/(n-1)Ileak
1.2.5 Thyristor Types
Depending on the physical construction and turn on and turn off behaviour thyristors can be classified broadly into different
categories:
1.2.5.1 A TRIAC (Bi-directional Triode Thyristor)
A TRIAC can be considered as an integration of two SCRs in inverse parallel. It can conduct in both directions and is normally used
in ac- phase control.
TRIAC
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When terminal A1 is positive
with respect to terminal A2 and the device is fired by a positive gate current +ig, it turns on. Also when terminal A2 is positive with
respect to terminal A1 and the device is fired by a negative gate current ig, the device turns on.
A TRIAC is frequently used in many low power applications such as juice mixers, blenders, vacuum cleaners, etc. There is also what
is called a DIAC similar to a TRIAC but does not have a gate input.
1.2.5.2 A GTO (Gate Turn Off) Thyristor
A single pulse of positive gate can turn ON this thyristor, but in addition a pulse of negative gate can turn it off current. A gate
current therefore controls both the On state and Off State operation of the device. See fig below for the symbol and switching
characteristics:
GTO Thyristor
The turn on process is the same as that of a Thyristor .The turn off process is somehow different. When a negative voltage is applied
across the gate and cathode terminals, the gate and cathode terminals , the gate current ig rises. When the gate current reaches
its maximum value Igr, the anode current begins to fall and the voltage across the device Vak, begins to rise. The fall time of Ia
is abrupt typically less than 1sec. Thereafter the anode current changes slowly, and this portion of the anode current is known as
the tail current
The ratio( Ia/Igr) of the anode current Ia (prior to turn off ) to the maximum negative gate current Igr required to turn off a Thyristor
is low typically between 3 and 5. For example , a 2500V, 100A GTO typically requires a peak negative current of 250A to turn it off.
GTOs that can operate up to 4500V, 2000 A, 5-10sec are available. These are becoming increasingly popular in power control
equipment and GTOs will replace thyristors where forced commutation is necessary as in choppers and inverters.
1.2.6 Power Transistors
A transistor is a three layer p-n-p or n-p-n semiconductor device having two junctions. This type of a transistor is known as a bipolar
junction transistor (BJT). The structure and the symbol of an n-p-n transistor are shown below.
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Transistor
The collector and the emitter terminals are connected to the main power circuit, and the base terminal is connected to control signal.
If the base current is zero, the transistor is in the off state and behaves as an open switch. On the other hand if the base is driven hard
, that is if the base current Ib is sufficient to drive the transistor into saturation, then the transistor behaves as a closed switch. The
transistor is current driven device. The base current determines whether it is in the off or On state. To keep the device in the on state
there must be sufficient base current. Transistors with high voltage and current ratings are known as the power transistors. The
current gain Ic/Ib of power transistor can be as low as 10, although it is higher than that of a GTO. Higher current gain can be
obtained by use of a Darlington Pair.
Power transistors switch on and off much faster than thyristors. They may switch on in less than 1sec and turn off in less than
2sec.. Hence the power transistors can be used in situations where the frequency is as high as 100kHz. These devices however fail
under certain high voltage and high current conditions. They should be operated within specified limits known as the safe operating
areas (SOA). The SOA is partitioned into four regions defined by the following limits:
Peak current limit (ab)
Power dissipation limit (bc)
Secondary breakdown limit (cd)
Peak voltage limit (de)
Safe Operating Area (SOA)
If high voltage and high current occur simultaneously during turn off, a hot spot is formed and the device fails by thermal runaway, a
phenomenon known as second breakdown.
Figure below shows the effects of the snubber circuit on the turnoff characteristics of a power transistor. A chopper circuit with an
inductive load is considered.
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If no snubber circuit is used and the base current is removed to turn off the transistor, the voltage across the device Vce first rises, and
when it reaches the dc supply voltage Vd, the collector current falls. The power dissipation P during the turnoff interval is shown in the
figure above by the dashed line. Note that the peaks of Vce and Ic occur simultaneously, and this may lead to secondary breakdown
failure.
If the snubber circuit is used and base current is removed to turn off the transistor , the collector current is diverted to the capacitor.
The collector current therefore, decreases as the collector emitter voltage increases, avoiding the simultaneous occurrence of peak
voltage and peak current.
Power transistors of ratings as high as 1000V,500A are available
Linear approximations of Switching intervals for a purely Resistive load
The collector emitter voltage during switching on falls from Vs to almost zero and the expression for the voltage is given by:
s
on
on
ce
V
t
t t
V *
= where t is the instantaneous time

the current rises and the expression is given by
on
m
c
t
t I
i
*
=
Similarly during turn off the collector current and the collector emitter voltage is given by:
off
off m
c
on
s
ce
t
t t I
i
t
t V
V
) (
&
*

= =
With the collector emitter voltage and the collector current expressions above the power losses during turn on and during turn
off can be determined.
Peak loss occur at dp/dt =0. Power loss during switching on is given by:
t t
t
t I V
t
I V
dt
dp
t
t
t
t
I V P
on
on
m s
on
m s on
on on
m s on
2
2
) (
2 2
2
= = =
That is ton is the time at which instantaneous power would be maximum. The switch on and off loss for a resistive load is given by:
12

= = = =
6
) 1 ( * ;
6
* ) 1 (
0
off m s
off off
m s off
t
on m s
on
m
on
s on
t I V
dt
t
t
t
t
I V W
t I V
dt
t
t
I
t
t
V W
on
The average power loss due to switching is obtained by multiplying energy loss by the switching frequency i.e power =energy/time
=energy *frequency.
Example
A power transistor has its switching waveforms as shown below. If the average power loss in the transistor is limited to 300W,
find the switching frequency at which the transistor can be operated?
Energy loss during turn on and turn off is given by the following illustration:
sec 1603 . 0
75
10 *
* 200 * )
60
10 *
1 ( 100
sec 1067 . 0 )
40
10 *
1 ( * 200 *
50
10 * * 100
*
6 6
6 6
= =
= = =

watt dt
t t
Woff
watt dt
t t
vdt ic W
ton
o
ton
o
on
Therefore energy loss in one cycle =0.1603+0.1067 =0.267watt-sec =E
But the power loss in the transistor is limited to 300W
Hence frequency =f =300/0.267 =123.6Hz.
DIODE
A diode is a two-layer p-n semiconductor device. The structure of a diode and its symbol are in figure 7 below
From V/I characteristic it can be noted that if a reverse voltage is applied across the diode, it behaves essentially as an open circuit. If a
forward voltage is applied, it starts conducting and behaves essentially as a closed switch. Following the end of a forward conduction in a
diode, a reverse current flows for a short time . The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current ceases. The
time interval during which reverse current flows is called reverse recovery time. This reverse recovery characteristic is of great
significance in high frequency applications.
1.2.7 Protection
The reliable operation of a converter would require ensuring that at all times the circuit conditions do not exceed the ratings of the power
devices, by providing protection against overvoltage; overcurrent and overheating. In practice the power devices are protected from:
Thermal runaway by heat sinks
High dv/dt and di/dt by snubbers
Reverse recovery transients
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Supply and load side transients
Faulty conditions by fuses
1.2.7.1 Cooling and heat sinks
Due to on state and switching losses, heat is generated within the power device. This heat must be transferred from the device to a cooling
medium to maintain the operating junction temperature within a specified range.
Although the heat transfer can be accompanied by conduction, convection, radiation or natural or forced air, convection cooling is
commonly used in industrial applications.
Cooling methods
6) Air coolers:- Air surrounding the device is heated through radiation and once heated natural convection takes place.
7) Forced Cooling:- This includes forced convection. A fan is used to push air past a heated surface. This causes the
thermal resistance to decrease. The thermal resistance decreases with air velocity. However above a certain velocity the
reduction in thermal resistance is not significant
8) Heat Sinks: - A wide variety of extruded aluminium heat sinks are commercially available and use cooling fins to
increase the heat transfer capability. The contact is between the device and heat sink is extremely important to minimise
the thermal resistance between the case and sink. The surfaces should therefore be smooth and free of dust/dirt,
corrosion and surface oxides. Silicon grease is normally applied to improve the heat transfer capability and to minimise
the formation of oxides and corrosion.
9) Heat pies:-These are pipes filled with low vapour pressure liquid. The liquid once heated it is changed to vapour and
goes to the fins and the vaporised liquid lose its heat through the fins and quickly changes back to liquid and returns to
the heat source. This is heated again and the cycle continues.
10) Liquids:- in high power applications the devices are more effectively cooled by liquids , normally water or oil. Water-
cooling is very efficient and approximately three times more effective than oil cooling. However it is necessary to use
distilled water to minimize corrosion and antifreeze to avoid freezing. Oil is flammable but eliminates problems of
freezing and corrosion.
Thermal resistance (R ).
Heat flow by conduction is very much alike the conduction of electrical charge i.e current
R
V V
I
1 2
= . Similarly power is the rate of
flow of heat energy and is proportional to the difference in temperature across the region through which the heat is conducted i.e:

R
T T
R
T
P
1 2

=
=
Thermal Model
Tj is the junction temperature
Rjc:- thermal resistance from junction to case in
o
c/w.
Rcs:- thermal resistance from case to sink in
o
c/w.
Rsa:- thermal resistance from sink to ambient in
o
c/w.
Ts:- is the heat sink temperature
Ta:- is the ambient temperature.
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From the expression

R
T T
R
T
P
1 2

=
= it can be noted that power is constant hence:

ja
a s
cs
s c
jc
c j
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
R
T
P

=
1 2
But
sa cs jc jja
ja
a j
a th
R R R R
R
T T
I V P

+ + = = =

& * it is from this equation and data sheets for heat sinks and thyristors that the
type and size of heat sink is derived.
Example
The collector to base junction of a certain transistor dissipates 2W. The thermal resistance from the junction to the case is 8
o
c/w and the
thermal resistance from the case to air is 20
o
c/w. The free air temperature is 25
o
c. Determine:
a) the junction temperature
b) the case temperature
Solution
a)
c T
T
R
T T
R
T
j
j
ja
a j
0
81
20 8
25
2 =
+
=

b) Similarly P=2 Tc =65
o
c.
2) di/dt protection
If the current in a thyristor rises at too high a rate, that is high di/dt, the device can be destroyed. Some inductance must be present or
inserted in series with the thyristor so that di/dt is below a safe limit specified by the manufacturer. Typically di/dt limit values for SCRs
are 20 500A/microsec
3) dv/dt Protection
If the entire anode to cathode forward voltage Va appears across J2, the charge on the junction is Q, then the charging current is given by:
dt
dVa
Cj
dt
dCj
Va
dt
dVa
Cj dt CjVa d
dt
dq
i = + = = = / ) ( Since Cj is a constant. If dVa/dt is high, the charging current will be more.
This charging current will play the role of gate current and turns on the SCR even when the gate signal is zero. As a result dv/dt must be
kept low. Typical values are 20-500V/microsec.
Power devices are protected from excessive di/dt and dv/dt by adding an inductor and snubber circuits see fig below:
A snubber circuit consists of a series combination of resistance R and capacitor C in parallel with thyristor. Before the thyristor is fired, C
charges to full supply voltage Vs. Once on the capacitor discharges through the thyristor hence the need for an R to limit the discharge of
C.
Example
Figure below shows a thyristor controlling the power to the load of resistance RL. The supply voltage is 240V dc and the specified limits
for di/dt and dv/dt for the SCR are 50A/sec and 300V/sec respectively. Determine the values of the inductance and the snubber circuit
parameters R and C.
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Solution:
When the switch is closed the capacitor behaves like a short circuit and the SCR is in forward blocking state and offers a high resistance.
RL R
L
RL R
Vs
I where e I i
dt
Ldi
i RL R Vs
t
+
=
+
= = + + =

& 1 )....... 1 ( ) (
Now di/dt from 1 gives:

t t
e
L
Vs
Ie
dt
di

= =
1
* The value of di/dt is a maximum when t=0 that is at point of switching on.
H
dt
di
Vs
L
L
Vs
dt
di
8 . 4 50 / 10 * 240
6
= = = =

.
The voltage across the SCR is given by
=
=
= = = 6
* /
/ / * R
L
Vs R dt dv
L Vs dt di but
dt
di
R
dt
dva
i R Va
The voltage across the capacitor is given by :
6
10 * ) 300 ( 6
240
) (
* ) 1 ( = =
C
dt
dVc
R
Vs
C e
CR
Vs
dt
dVc
e Vs Vc
CR
t
CR
t
1.2.7.2 Overvoltage Protection
Switching transients usually appear across the converter and these cause overvoltages. This effect of overvoltages is usually minimised
by use of snubber circuits, non linear resistors called voltage clamping devices (VARISTORS); Metal oxide Varistors MOVs as well as
selenium diodes.
The VARISTORS, snubber circuits, and selenium diodes are connected in parallel with the converter.
The voltage clamping devices have falling resistance characteristic with increasing voltage . When a voltage surge appears, the voltage-
clamping device operates in the low resistance region and produces a virtual short circuit across the power device limiting the amount of
the transient voltage. After the surge energy is dissipated in the non linear resistor , the operation of the voltage clamping device returns
to its high resistance region. Under normal operating conditions these devices draw very small current.
1.2.7.3 Overcurrent Protection
a) The power converters may develop short circuits or faults and the resultant fault currents must leared quickly. Fast acting fuses
are normally used to protect the semiconductor devices. As the faulty current increases the fuse opens and clears the fault current
in milliseconds
The operation of the fast acting fuse is illustrated below
16
The current limiting fuse consists of one or more fine silver ribbons having very short fusing times. If we assume that the a fault occurs at
t=0, without the fuse the fault current would rise up to A and up to or beyond D.
A properly selected fuse melts at A. For a brief moment or interval after A, the current continues to rise depending upon the circuit
parameters and fuse design. This current reaches the peak let through current B, after B the arc resistance increases and fault current
decreases. At point C arcing stops and the fault current is cleared. The total arcing time is tc =tm + ta.
The current time curves of the devices and fuses may be used for the coordination of a fuse for a device see figures below:
The fault is normally cleared in 10msec. The fuse must be rated to carry full load current plus marginal overload current for an indefinite
period, but the peak let through current of fuse must be less than the surge current of the SCR.
If R is the resistance of the fault circuit and I is the instantaneous fault current between the instant of fault occurring and the instant of arc
extinction, the energy fed to the circuit is
= dt Ri We
2
.
If R remains constant , the value of i
2
t is proportional to the energy fed to the circuit. The i
2
t value is termed the let through energy and is
responsible for melting the fuse. The fuse manufacturers specify the i
2
t of characteristic of a fuse. In selecting the fuse it is necessary to
estimate the fault current and then to satisfy the following requirements:
These fuses must take account of :
a) the need to permit the continuous passage of the steady- state load current.
b) Permitted overload conditions including transients.
c) Prospective fault conditions
d) The I
2
t rating of the device the fuse must clear the fault before the I
2
t limit is reached
e) The fuse must be able to withstand the voltage after the arc extinction.
f) The peak arc voltage must be less than the peak voltage rating of the device
Crowbar Protection Circuit
17
A current sensing resistor R1 detects the value of the converter current. If it exceeds preset value , gate circuit provides the signal to the
craw bar SCR and turns it on. The input terminals are then short circuited by the craw bar SCR and it shunts away the converter over
current. Thus causing F1 to breakdown and interrupting the fault current. Also R2 and R3 can be used for overvoltage protection. If Vfb
exceeds the set voltages, the SCR is also switched on eliminating the overvoltage.
Chapter 2
2.1 Diode Rectifiers
A rectifier is a circuit that converts ac signal to DC. Diodes are taken as ideal i.e Voltage across a diode =0 .
2.1.1 Single phase half wave Rectifiers
Performance Parameters
As noted above the output voltage is discontinuous and contains harmonics. The power processing quality of a rectifier requires the
determination of harmonic contents of the input current, the output voltage. The average output load voltage is = Vdc and load current is
Idc.
Therefore the output dc power is Pdc =Vdc*Idc. The rms value of voltage and current is Vrms and I
rms
. Therefore output ac power Pac
=V
rms
*I
rms
.
The efficiency or the rectification ratio of a rectifier is given by =Pdc/Pac
The output voltage voltage can be considered to be composed of two components:-
1) the dc value
2) the ac component or ripple.
The effective rms value of the ac component of output voltage is determined from:
2 2 2 2 2
dc rms ac dc ac rms
V V V V V V = + =
The form factor, which is a measure of the shape of output voltage, is: FF =Vrms/Vdc.
The ripple factor, which is a measure of the ripple content is defined as
RF =Vac/Vdc 1
2
2 2
=
= FF
Vdc
V V
RF
dc rms
Transformer utilization factor is defined as TUF =Pdc/Vs*Is where Vs and Is are the rms voltage and rms current of the
transformer secondary, respectively (VA of the transformer secondary)
18
Let us consider the waveforms of figure below where Vs is the instantaneous, sinusoidal input voltage, is is the instantaneous input
current and is1 is its fundamental component. See figure below
If is the angle between the fundamental component of the input current and voltage it is called the displacement angle. The
displacement factor is defined as Cos DF = .
The harmonic factor ( a measure of the distortions of a waveform) is defined as
2
1
2
1
2 2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1

=
s
s
s
s s
I
I
I
I I
HF where Is1 is the fundamental component of the input current Is. Both Is1 and Is are expressed in
rms. The input power factor PF is defined as
PF =Vs Is1Cos/ Vs Is =Is1 Cos /Is.
Crest Factor (CF) is a measure of the peak input current Ipeak as compared with its r.m.s value Is.
CF =Ipeak/Is This helps in specifying the peak current ratings of devices and components..
Note :
If the input current is is purely sinusoidal Is1 =Is and the power factor PF equals the displacement factor DF. The displacement angle
becomes the impedance angle = tan
-
(L/R ) for an RL load.
2. Displacement factor is often known as displacement power factor (DPF)
Example :-
The rectifier above has a purely resistive load of R. determine :
a) the efficiency
b) The FF
c) The RF
d) The TUF
e) The PIV of diode
f) The CF of the input current
Solution
First we determine the average output voltage Vdc:
( )
R
V
R
V
I
V
t
Cos
T
V
dt T Sin V
T
V
m dc
dc
m
m
T
m dc
318 . 0
1
2
*
1
2
0
= = =
= =
and
R
V
R
V
I
V
dt t Sin V
T
I
V
m rms
rms
m
T
m rms
5 . 0
2
*
2
1
2
0
2 2
= = =

a) efficiency =Pdc/Pac =Vdc*Idc/Vrms*Irms =40.5%
b) FF =Vrms/Vdc =0.5Vm/0.318Vm =157%
c) RF =121%
d) The transformer secondary rms voltage is :
R
V
R
V
I V
V
dt t Sin V
T
I
V
m rms
rms m
m
T
m rms
5 . 0
707 . 0
2
*
2
1
2
1
1
0
2 2
= = = =

Note the rms current comes in only when the diode is conducting.
The Voltage Ampere of the transformer is VA =Vs*Is =0.707Vm *0.5Vm/R
Therefore TUF =Pdc/VsIs =0.318
2
/0.707*0.5 =0.286
d) The PIV =Vm
19
e) Ipeak =Vm/R and Is =0.5Vm/R therefore the CF =Ipeak/Is =2
Half wave rectifier with RL load
Due to inductive load , the conduction period of diode D1 will extend beyond 180 deg until the current becomes zero at t = +:
The average output voltage is given by:
( )
R
V
I Cos
V
t d t Sin V V
dc
dc
m
m dc
= +
+
= =
+
1
1
2
*
2
1
1
0

It can be noted that the average voltage and current can be increased by making =0, which is possible by adding a freewheeling diode
Dm.
If the output of the circuit is connected to the battery the rectifier becomes a battery charger seefig below:
For Vs >E diode D1 conducts ,from to . The angle can be determined from VmSin =E
=Sin
-1
(E/Vm) and diode D1 is turned off when Vs< E at .= -. . And the charging current is :
io =(Vs-E)/R =(Vm Sin t E)/R for < t< .
Example
The battery voltage in figure above is E=12V and its capacity is 100Wh. The average charging current should be Idc =5A.The primary
input voltage is Vp 120V, 60Hz and the transformer has a turns ratio of n=2 calculate:-
a) Conduction angle of the diode
b) The current limiting resistance R
c) The power rating of R
d) The charging time in hours (ho)
e) The rectifier efficiency
f) The PIV of the diode
Solution
E=12V;Vp =120V; Vs =Vp/2 =120/2 =60V and Vm =60* 2
0.5
= 84.85V
a) =Sin
-1
(12/84.85) =8.13 deg and .= -. =180-8.13 =171.87 therefore the Conduction angle = . -. =171.87-8.13 =163.74
deg.
b) The average charging current Idc is
t d
R
E t Sin V
Idc
m
*
2
1
remember
.= -. R =4.26
c) The rms battery current is : t d
R
E t Sin V
I
m
rms

=
2
2
2
) (
2
1
I=8.2A The power rating of R is Pr =8.2*8.2*4.26
=286.4W
20
d) The power delivered Pdc to the battery is Pdc =E*Idc =12*5 =60W. Now the battery capacity =100Wh =Power * Time;
charging time ho =100Wh/Powerho =100Wh/60W =1.67hrs.
e) The rectifier efficiency = % 3 . 17
4 . 286 60
60
=
+
=
+
=
R dc
dc
P P
P
f) The peak inverse voltage of the diode =PIV =Vm +E =84.85 +12 =96.85V
Single-phase full wave Rectifiers
A full wave rectifier circuit
with a center tapped transformer circuit is shown in fig above. The average output voltage is:
V
V
tdt Sin V
T
Vdc
m
T
m
637 . 0
2
2
2
0
= = =
Instead of using center tapped transformer four diodes can be used as shown below:
The peak inverse voltage of a
diode is Vm. This is a bridge rectifier and it is commonly used in industrial applications.
Three phase Bridge Rectifiers
A three-phase bridge rectifier is commonly used in high power applications see the circuit diagram below:
21
This can operate with/out a transformer and gives six pulses/ ripples on the output voltage. Each diode conducts 120 deg. The
conduction sequence for diodes is D1-D2; D3-D2; D3-D4;D4-D5; D5-D6 and D1-D6. The pair of diodes having the highest of
amount of instantaneous line-to-line voltage will conduct.
If Vm is the peak value of the phase voltage then the instantaneous voltages are given by:: ; t Sin V Van
m
=
) 120 ; ( = t Sin V Vbn
m
); 240 ( = t Sin V Vcn
m

CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
A controlled rectifier converts ac power to dc power. Controlling the instants at which the semiconductor devices switch can control the
output voltage and power.
Thus controlled rectifiers can be used to control the speed of a DC motor. Some controlled rectifiers can convert DC to ac and that is
Inversion.
Thyristor Rectifier, Resistive load
A simple thyristor rectifier circuit consisting of a single thyristor and a resistance load is shown in below.
Fig Thyristor rectifier with resistive load circuit and waveforms
The thyristor is forward biased during the intervals 0<t <, 2<t<3, etc. A gate pulse is applied at an angle . This angle is
known as the firing angle of the thyristor. The thyristor current becomes zero at t =,3, etc, and the thyristor conducts from to
,2 +, to 3, etc. During the interval when the thyristor conducts, known as conduction interval, the load voltage is the same as
the supply voltage, Vo =V and the average voltage is determined below:
We noted for a single phase diode rectifier circuit consisting of a resistive load, is:
t Sin V v
p
2 = Then the average value of the load is given by
p
p o
V
t d t Sin V v
2
2
2
1
0
= =
22
Thyristor Rectifier, Resistive Load
The thyristor is forward biased during the interval 0-180 and 360-540 degrees.
The thyristor is fired at an angle and conduct for a conduction angle . The average value of the load is :
) 1 (
2
); 1 (
2
) (
2
1
0
Cos
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin V Vo
L
o
m
m
+ = + = =
The load voltage will vary with the variation of and becomes maximum at =0 and zero at = .
V
dc max
=V
m
/ and occurs at =0, Idc max = V
m
/ R = I
m
/ .
The rms load voltage for a given firing angle is:
2
1
2
1
2 2
)
2
2 sin
(
1
2
) (
2
1
+ =
m
m rms
V
t d t Sin V V
And the rms load current is given by the expression:
[ ]
2
; )
2
2
(
1
2
max
2
1
m
rms
L
m
L
rms
rms
V
V
Sin
R
V
R
V
I = + = =

The average power P in the load for any trigger angle is given by P =Vdc*Idc.
Example1
A 100 load is connected to a peak supply of 300V through a controlled half wave thyristor rectifier. The load average power is to be
varied from 25W to 80W. What is the angular firing control required? Neglect forward drop of the thyristor.
Solution
Power =Vdc*Idc=Vo*Io
And ) 1 (
2
); 1 (
2
) (
2
1
Cos
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin V Vo
L
m
o
m
m
+ = + = =
Power =P =
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
) 1 ( 5 . 22 ) 1 (
100 * 4
300
) 1 (
4

Cos Cos Cos

R
V
L
m
+ = + = +
When P=80W then the firing angle can be determined by the following relationship:
8857 . 0 556 . 3 1 ) 1 ( 556 . 3 ) 1 ( 5 . 22 80
2 2
= = + + = + = Cos Cos Cos Cos Therefore =27.66
0
.At a
power of 25W the firing angle is 87,3
0
.
Thyristor half Wave Rectifier, Reactive Load
23
Most practical Loads have resistance and inductance L, e.g. the armature of a dc motor load has resistance (R) and inductance (L). When
a thyristor is fired at the inductance in the load forces the current to lag the voltage and decays to zero at . The waveform of the
load current and voltage is shown below:
From to the load current is driven by the supply source and from to the load voltage is negative and the current is maintained
by the voltage induced in the inductance
Half wave Controlled Rectifier With RL load and a free Wheeling Diode
The diode D bypasses the load current during the intervals of negative transformer voltage and this prevents the output voltage from
assuming a negative value.
The diode prevents the voltage across the load from reversing during the negative half cycle of the supply voltage.
The load average voltage would be determined only by the positive half cycle wave of the transformer secondary emf from to
.
The average voltage is ) 1 (
2
) 1 (
2 2
2
Cos
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
l
m
dc
m
dc
+ = + = =
Thyristor Full Converter

Half wave rectification contains a significant amount of ripples. Therefore this is not suitable for speed control of dc motors.
A full converter circuit shown in fig below is used for the speed control of DC motors.
The load current io has the same waveform as the load voltage vo..
The average load voltage is given by:
) 1 ( ); 1 ( ) (
2
2
Cos
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin V Vo
L
m
o
m
m
+ = + = =
The rms voltage is given by the following expression:

24
2
1
2
1
2 2
)
2
2 sin
(
2
1
) (
1
+ =
m m rms
V t d t Sin V V
and the rms current is
[ ]
2
1
)
2
2
(
2
1

Sin
R
V
R
V
I
L
m
L
rms
rms
+ = =
DC Motor Load / RL load
When terminal A
1
is more positive as compared to A
2
T1 and T2 are fired simultaneously and current flows through T1 load and T2. In
the reverse half cycle T3 and T4 are fired and the reverse voltage applied across them commutates T1 and T2. Due to inductive load, T1
and T2 will conduct beyond ,even though the input voltage is already negative see the waveforms above.
Depending on the size of the inductance the conduction can be discontinuous or continuous as shown above. If X
L
>>R then the load
current will be continuous.
Discontinuous load conduction
The average voltage is given by ) (
2
2

Cos Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
m m
dc
= =
The conduction angle of the thyristors is given by = - , hence = +

Now
)
2
(
2
2
2
*
2
2

+ =
+
= Sin Sin Sin Sin Cos Cos
Therefore the average voltage for discontinuous load conductions is
l
dc
dc
m
dc
R
V
I Sin Sin
V
V = + = )
2
(
2
2
Continuous load Conduction

If we assume that sufficient inductance is present in the dc armature circuit to ensure that the motor current is continuous (present all the
time).
If conduction is continuous the limits are from to ( + ) and the average voltage is given by:
l
m
l
dc
dc
m m
dc
R
Cos V
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
2 2
2
2
= = = =
+
The rms voltage is determined from the following relationship:
2
1
2
2
t td Sin
V
V
m
rms
Depending on the value of the average output voltage could be either positive or negative and it provides two-quadrant operation.
25
For =45
0
it can be noted that T1 and T2 conduct the motor current during the interval < t < (+) and connects the motor to the
supply v=Vs . At (+), T3 and T4 are fired. The supply voltage appears immediately across thyristorsT1 and T2 as reverse bias voltage
and turns them off. This is called Line Commutation. The motor current , ia which was flowing from the supply through T1 and T2 is
transferred to T3 and T4. T3 and T4 conduct the motor current during the interval (+)<t < (2+) and connects the motor to the
supply (vo =-V)
l
m
l
dc
dc
m m
dc
R
Cos V
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
2 2
2
2
= = = =
+
The inductance (La) does not sustain any average voltage. Therefore V
dc
=Vo =IoRa +Ea
Where Io is the average motor current; Ea is the armature back emf, which is constant if the speed and field current are constant
The variation of the motor terminal voltage Vo as a function of the angle based on the equation Vdc. For firing angles in the range 0
o
<
<90
0
, the average output is positive. Since the current can flow in one direction in the load circuit because of the thyristors , the power
VoIo is positive ;power is flowing from the supply to the dc machine , and the dc machine operates as a motor. For firing angles 90
o
<
<180
0
,the output voltage is negative and therefore the power VoIo is negative; that is power flow is from the machine to the ac supply.
This is known as inversion Operation of the converter, and this mode of operation is used for the regenerative braking of the motor. Note
that for inversion operation, the polarity of the motor back emf Ea must be negative. It can be reversed by reversing the field current if
so that the dc machine behaves as dc generator.
Converter output characteristics for continuous load current
26
Two full converters can be connected back to back as shown below . This arrangement is known as the dualConverter connection. If one
converter is used, it causes motor current to flow in one direction. If the other converter is used, the motor current reverses and so does
the speed
Dual Converter
Example .
A full wave fully controlled single phase bridge rectifier feeds a load resistance R and inductance L from an AC source of Vrms voltage
Vs.
Assuming the operation is continuous:
a) show that the mean or average voltage value of the DC output voltage Vo is given by Cos V V
s o
90 . 0 = .
If R=4,L500mH, =30
0
,Vs =240V and the supply frequency is 50Hz.
b) Calculate:
i) the average and the rms currents output
ii) the thyristor average and rms currents and
iii) the power factor of the ac input to the rectifier
Solution
a) the mean value of the dc output for continuous operation is

Cos V Cos
V
Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
s
s m m
dc
90 . 0
* 2 2 2
2
2
= = = =
+
b) (i) Xl=2fL=2**50*0.5H =157 This implies that the load current is going to be continuous. Therefore
A i V Cos Cos V V
dc s dc
8 . 46
4
1 . 187
1 . 187 30 * 240 * 90 . 0 90 . 0 = = = = = .
The current is almost constant since the ripple is almost negligible because of high circuit inductance. Thus this current is both the
average and the rms value i.e io =irms =46.78A

(ii) The thyristor average current is A
i
t d i I
o tha
4 . 23
2
78 . 46
) ( *
2 2
1
0
= = + = =

the rms thyristor current is:
A
i
t d i I
o
o thrms
1 . 33 ) (
2 2
1
2
1
2 2
1
2
=
+ =
iii) The output power to the load is :

27
W R i P
o o
48 . 8753 4 * 78 . 46 *
2 2
= = = This is also the input power to the converter. The VA drawn from the supply is given by
: 8 . 0
2 . 11227
48 . 8753
2 . 11227 240 * 78 . 46 = = = = PF W V I
s s
Thyristor Semiconverter
A thyristor semiconverter that can be used for the speed control of a dc motor consists of thyristors and diodes. See fig below:
Thyristors T1 and T2 are fired at and (2 + ), respectively. See the waveforms. The motor is connected to the input supply for the
period < t< through T1 and D2, and the load voltage is the same as the input voltage. Beyond , Vo tends to reverse as the
input voltage changes polarity. As Vo tends to reverse , the diode Dfw (known as the free wheeling diode ) becomes forward biased
and starts to conduct. The motor current which was flowing from the supply through T1, is transferred to Dfw, (i.e T1 commutates).
The output terminals are shorted through the freewheeling diode during the interval ( < t< + ) making Vo =0. At t= + , T2 is
fired and it take over the motor current ia from Dfw. The load current now flows through T2 and D1.At t=2 , Dfw, becomes
forward biased again and takes over the current from T2, and the process continues. See the waveforms. Note that if D
fw
is not used,
freewheeling action will take place through T1 and D2 during the interval (2 < t<2 + ).
The average value of the output voltage is:
) 1 (
* 2
) ( ) * * 2 (
1
Cos
V
t d t Sin V Vo
+ =
=
Note; Vo is always positive and therefore Vo*Io is always positive that is power flow is from the ac supply to the dc load.
Semiconverters do not invert power. However they are cheaper than full converters.
Waveforms
Example
28
A single phase full converter is used to control the speed of a 5hp, 110V, 1200rpm, separately excited dc motor. The converter is
connected to a single phase 120V,60Hz supply. The armature resistance is Ra =0.4 and armature circuit inductance is La=5mH.
The motor voltage constant K =0.09V/rpm.
1. Rectifier(or motoring) operation. The dc machine operates as a motor runs at 1000rpm, and carries an armature current of 30A.
Assume that the motor current is ripple free.
a) Determine the firing angle
b) Determine the power to the motor
c) Determine the supply power factor
2. Inverter Operation (Regenerating Action). Reversing the field excitation reverses the polarity of the motor back emf Ea.
a) Determine the firing angle to keep the motor at 30A when speed is 100rpm
b) Determine the power fed back to the supply at 1000rpm.
Solution
a) Ea =0.09*1000 =90V; Vo =Ea +IoRa =90+30 =102V,
0
2 . 19
120 * 2 2
102 = =
Cos
b) P =Io
2
*Ra + EaIo =VoIo =102*30 =3060W
c)The supply current has a square waveform with amplitude 30A (=Io). The rms supply current is I=30A .
The supply Volt-Amperes are 120*30A =3600VA
If the losses in the converter are neglected, the power from the supply is the same as the power to the motor Ps =3060W
Thus the supply power factor is PF =Ps/S=3060/3600 =0.85
2. (a) At the time of polarity reversal the back emf is Ea =90V and from Vo =Ea +IoRa =-90+30*0.4 =-90+12 =-78V
Now
0
2 . 136 78 *
120 * 2 2
= = =
V Cos Vo
b) Power from the dc machine Pdc =90*30 =2700W
Power lost in Ra =30
2
*0.4 =360W
Power fed back to the ac supply =Ps =2700-360 =2340W
Three Phase Circuits
For higher power applications, several kilowatts three phase circuits are preferable. The magnitude of harmonic voltage is lower in
three phase circuits than in single-phase circuits. This is due to increasing number of pulses.
Half Wave Controlled Rectifier With Resistive load
29
) 120 ( * * 2 ) 240 ( * * 2
) 120 ( * * 2
* * 2
0 0
0
+ = =
=
=
t Sin V t Sin V Vcn
t Sin V Vbn
t Sin V Van

If thyristor T1 is fired at t =30

0
,T2 is fired at t =150
0
, and T3 t =270
0
that is at the crossing points of the phase voltages. Firing
at these instants will also result in maximum output voltage. The reference for the firing angle is therefore the crossing point of the
phase voltages. The firing of the thyristors can be delayed from these crossing points. In other words the firing angle is measured
from the crossing points of the phase voltages. Recall that in a single-phase converter, the firing angle was measured from the zero
crossing of the input supply voltage.
For the above waveform thyristor T1 is fired at t =30
0
+ , and the output voltage is Vo=Van. The output voltage io =Vo/R, and
becomes zero at t =. Thyristor T1 turns off at this instant through natural commutation. Thyristor T2 is fired att =150
0
+ ,
making Vo= Vbn. T2 turns off at t =300
0
.T3 is fired at
t =270
0
+ . Making Vo =Vcn.
Example
The load in the fig above now consists of a resistance and a very large inductance. The inductance is so large that the output current
io can be assumed to be continuous and ripple- free. For =60
0
.
a) Draw the waveforms of vo and io.
b) Determine the average value of the output voltage if phase voltage Vp =120V
30
Solution
b) The average voltage Vdc is given by the following relationship:
V Cos V V V V
Cos
V
t td Sin V t td Sin V V
dc m p
m
m m dc
2 . 70 ) 60 ( *
2
120 * 2 * 3 3
120 * 2 120
*
2
3 3
*
2
3
*
2
3
0
120 30
30
6
5
6
= = = =
= = =

+ +
+
+
+

This consists of six thyristor switches as shown in figure below and this is the most commonly used controlled rectifier circuit in
industrial applications up to 120kW.
Thyristors T1 ,T3 and T5 are
fired during the positive half cycle of the voltages of the phases to which they are connected, and thyristors T2,T4,T6 are fired during
the negative cycle of the phase voltages. The references for the firing angles are the crossing points of the phase voltages. See
waveforms below:
31
The times at which the
thyristors fire are marked in the figure above for =30
0
.
Assuming that the output current io ( i.e the dc motor current ) is continuous and ripple free as shown above.
At t= 30
0
+ =/6+ T1 turns ON. Prior to this T6 was ON. during interval (/6+ < ) t < (/6+ +/3), T1 and
T6 conduct the output current and the motor terminals are connected to phase A and B making the output voltage vo =Van
Vbn. The output voltage vo is the distance between the envelopes of the phase voltages Van and Vbn as shown by the
arrows in the waveforms above.Note Van is positive and Vbn is negative hence Van Vbn becomes Van +Vab. Under
phase A there is T1 and T4; while under B there is T3 and T6 and under C there is T5 and T2. this can be noted also on
each compltete cycle for each phase
At t = (/6+ +/3), T2 is fired and immediately voltage Vcb appears T6, which reverse-biases it and turns it off (line
commutation. The current from T6 is transferred to S2. The motor terminals are connected to phase A through T1 and
phase C through T2, making Vo =Vac. This process repeats after every 60
0
whenever a thyristor is fired. Note that the
thyristors are numbered in a sequence in which they are fired.
Each thyristor conducts for 120
0
in a cycle. The thyristor current iT1 is shown in the graph. The line current such as iA, is a
quasi square wave having a pulse width of 120
0
as shown above.
The conduction pattern or firing sequence for the above circuit is
Remember for a three phase star connected system I
line
=I
phase
and V
line
=3*V
phase
and I
neutral
=I
R
+I
Y
+I
B
.
Remember for a three phase Delta connected system I
line
=3*I
phase
and V
line
=V
phase
.
The average value of the output voltage is: T1T6; T1T2; T2T3; T3T4; T4T5; T5T6; T6T1etc.
Cos
V
Cos V t d Vbn Van V
m
s o
3 3 6 3
) ( * ) (
2
6
3 6
6
= = =
+ +
+
32
The average output voltage varies with the firing angle , and this variation is shown in fig below:
For varying in the range 0 < < 90
0
, Vo is positive and power flow is from the ac supply to the DC motor. For 90
0
< <
180
0
,Vo is negative and the converter operates in the inversion mode. The power can be transferred from the dc motor to the
ac supply a process known as regeneration.
The 3-phase semiconverter consists of three thyristors and three diodes as shown in fig below:
Voltages and current waveforms are shown in fig below for a firing angle of =90
0
. The instants of firing a thyristor and the
duration of conduction of the diodes are shown in the figure below showing the waveforms.
33
We will assume that the output current is continuous and ripple free. At t =/6+ , T1 turns ON and T1 and D3 conduct
the output current io, making Vo=Vac. At t= 210
0
,Vo is zero, and from this instant onwards Vo tends to be negative. The diode
D1 will become forward biased (and start conducting). The output current io will freewheel through T1 and D1, making Vo =0.
When T2 is triggered on, the output current io will conduct through T2 and and D1 making Vo =Vba.
The process repeats every 120
0
whenever a thyristor is fired.
Note that the line current iA starts at t =/6+ and terminates at t= 210
0
.
) 1 (
2
3 3
* ) 120 (
2
3
2
3
0
6
6
6
6
Cos
V
t d t Sin V t Sin V t d Vac V
m
m m o
+ = + = =

+
+
+
+
Note that the output voltage
cannot reverse. Hence this converter does not operate in the inversion mode.
Dual Coverters
Two full converters can be connected back to back to form a dual converter just as in the single-phase situation and both the voltage Vo
and current Io can reverse in a dual converter.
Example
A 3phase full converter is used to control the speed of a 100hp, 600V,1800rpm, separately excited motor. The converter is operated from
a star connected 3phase, 480V, 60Hz supply. The motor parameters are Ra =0.1, La =5mH ,K =0.3V/rpm (Ea=Kn). The rated
armature current is 130A
1. The rectifier (or motoring) operation:- The machine operates as a motor, draws rated current, and runs at 1500rpm. Assume that
the motor current is ripple free
a) Determine the firing angle.
b) Determine the supply power factor
2. Inverter operation :- The dc machine is operated in the regenerative braking mode. At 1000rpm and rated motor current
b) Determine the power fed back to the supply and the supply power factor
34
Solution
a) Phase voltage is V R I E V V E V V
a o a o a p
463 1 . 0 * 130 450 450 1500 * 3 . 0 277
3
480
= + = + = = = = = but
we know :
0
4 . 44 *
3 * 277 * 2 3
463 463
3 3
= = = =
Cos V Cos
V
V
m
o
b) Since the ripple in the motor current is neglected, the supply current iA is a square wave of magnitude 130A and width 120
0
.
The rms value of the supply current is A t d i i
o rms
1 . 106 130 *
3
2
3
2
* 130 *
1 1
2
1
2
2
1
3
2
0
2
= =
The supply voltage amperes are S =3Via =3*277*106.1 =88169.1VA

Assuming no losses in the converter, the power from the supply Ps is the same as the power input to the motor. Hence
Ps =Vo*Io =463*130 =60190W
Therefore the supply power factor is PF =Ps/S =60190/88169.1 =0.68
2. (a) Ea =0.3*1000 = 300V
For inversion the polarity of Ea is reversed
Vo =Ea +IoRa
=-300 +130*0.1
= -287V
0
3 . 116 *
3 * 277 * 2 3
287 287
3 3
= = = =
Cos V Cos
V
V
m
o

b) Power from the DC machine (operating as a generator): Pdc =300*130 =39000W
Power lost in Ra: Pr =130
2
* 0.1 =1690W
Power to the source: Ps =39000 1690 =37310 W
Supply Volt amperes S = 88169.1V and Supply power factor =PF =37310/88169.1 =0.423
Assignment 2
Question 1
A three phase half wave converter in fig below is operated from a three phase Y connected 415V, 50Hz supply and the load
resistance is R =10 . If it is required to obtain an average output voltage of 50% of the maximum possible output voltage.
Calculate:
a) the delay angle , [4]
b) the rms and average output currents [4]
c) the average and rms thyristor currents [4]
d) the rectification efficiency [4]
e) the input power factor [4]
Question 2
A three phase full wave converter is operated from a three phase Y connected 415V, 50Hz supply and the load is highly inductive
with resistance R =10 . If this converter is required to obtain an average output voltage of 50% of the maximum possible output
voltage. Sketch the circuit diagram. [2]
Calculate:
35
Question 3
A full wave fully controlled single-phase bridge rectifier feeds a load resistance and inductance L from an AC source of rms
voltage Vs. A freewheeling diode is fitted across the load.
a) Show that the output voltage is given by
2
) 1 ( 9 . 0 Cos V
V
s
o
+
= [4]
Given that R =4 , L=500mH, =30 ,Vs =240V and the supply frequency to be 50Hz, Calculate:
b) The average and rms output currents [4]
c) The thyristor average and rms currents [4]
d) The diode average and rms currents [4]
e) The power factor of the ac input to the rectifier [4]
AC Voltage Controllers
AC voltage controllers
These convert a fixed voltage ac supply into a variable voltage ac supply. They can be used to control the speed of induction motors.
Single phase AC Voltage Controllers
The waveforms are as shown below:
36
T1 is fired at and T2 is fired at +. If T1 is fire the current builds up at and decays to zero at . When T2 turns on at + a negative
current flows in the load.
During conduction interval say for T1:
t VSin
dt
di
L i R V
o o
* 2 * = + =
The load current is:

t
transient e steadystat o
Ae t Sin
Z
V
i i i
+ = + = ) (
2
..1
where :
R
L
R
L
L R Z = = + =

; tan ; ) (
1 2 2
At t =, io =0 then:

) (
) (
2
L
R
e Sin
Z
V
A = ..2
From equations 1 and 2
] ) ( ) ( [
2 ) )( ( t
L
R
o
e Sin t Sin
Z
V
i

= .3
Letting = from 3:
) (
2
= t Sin
Z
V
i
o
4
From equation 4, the load current io is sinusoidal, which indicates that if the firing angle is the same as the impedance angle i.e., =, the
load current becomes purely sinusoidal.
0
and the full supply appears across the load. Fig below shows the waveforms of load current for two
different firing angles.
For > , io is non-sinusoidal, and for =, io is sinusoidal. Even for < will be sinusoidal.
To determine , when the current io falls to zero and T1 is turned off, can be found from the condition i
o
(t=)=0 and this gives a
relation :
37
) )( (
) ( ) (

=
L
R
e Sin Sin
The angle , which is also known as the extinction angle, can be determined from this equation by way of an iterative method of solution.
Once is known then the conduction angle of T1 can then be determined from = - .
The rms output voltage is :
2
1
2
1
2 2
0
2
2
2
2 1
) ( * 2
2
2
+ =
Sin Sin
V t d t Sin V V Where V is the rms supply voltage.
The rms thyristor current is obtained from:
2
1
2
0
) (
2
1
t d i I
rth
and the rms output current can then be found by combining the rms current of each thyristor as
( )
rth rth rth
I I I I * 2
2
1
2 2
0
= + = and the average thyristor current can be determined from
) (
2
1
0
t d i I
a
Example
A single-phase full wave controller supplies an RL load. The input rms voltage is V =120V, 60Hz. The load is such that L=6.5mH and
R=2.5. The delay angle of thyristors are equal:1=2=/2. Determine
a) the conduction angle of thyristor T1,;
b) the rms output voltage Vo,
c) the rms thyristor current Irth;
d) the rms output current Io;
e) the average current of a thyristor Ia; and
f) the input power factor.
Solution:
R=2.5, L=6.5mH, f=60Hz, =2*60 =377rad/s, V=120V, =/2. and
=tan
-1
(L/R)=44.43
0
.
a) an iteration solution yields 220.35
0
hence the conduction angle = =220.35
0
-90
0
=130.43
0
b) Vo =68.09V
c) Integrating from to gives Irth =15.07A
d) Io =21.3A
e) Ia=8.23A
f) Output power =21.3
2
2.5=1134.2W and the input VA is VA =120*21.3=2556W Therefore PF =1134.2/2556 =0.444lag

Three Phase AC voltage Controllers
For higher power loads such as the induction motors driving fans, or pumps, three phase controllers are used. Figure below shows the two
types of three phase ac voltage controllers.
In one circuit, the thyristors switches are in the lines and the load can be connected either in Star or Delta. While in the other circuit the
thyristors are connected in series with the phase loads to form a delta connection
38
The firing sequence for the Y connected will be T1;T2;T3;T4;T5;T6 or see the waveforms below:
The operation of the delta-connected controller can be studied on a per phase basis because each phase is connected across a known
supply voltage.
Example:
A three phase ac voltage controller is used to start and control the speed of a 3 phase 100Hp ,460V, four pole induction motor driving a
centrifugal pump. At full load output the power factor of the motor is 0.85 and the efficiency is 80%. The motor current is sinusoidal.
The controller and the motor are connected in delta as shown above.
a) determine the rms current rating of the thyristors
b) determine the peak voltage rating of the thyristor
c) determine the control range of the firing angle
Solution
a) output power is given S PF Po * * =
S=100*0.746/0.8*0.85 =109.71kVA
We know VA=3Vph*Iph Iph =109.71kVA/3*460 =79.5A (remember V
ph
=V
L
for a delta connected load and
ph L
I I 3 = )
thyristor rms current =79.5/(2)
1/2
= 56.22A
b) Peak voltage across the thyristor =(2)
1/2
*460=650.4V
c) the control range of the firing angle is determined from the fact that :
39

0 1
8 . 31 85 . 0 = = =

Cos Cos PF the control range is 31.8
0
< <180
0
.
Thyristor Commutation
A thyristor needs a commutation circuit whenever a dc source supplies power to be modulated. For example when a thyristor is
being used on inverters and Choppers once ON it will remain being on until a positive voltage is applied on its cathode that is when
it can be turned off and this is termed forced commutation.
There is natural commutation which is to do with the switching off of the thyristor by virtue of current falling below its holding
current and this happens naturally as in the case of ac supply. See fig below:
At 90 the thyristor switches off naturally and awaits another firing signal for the next positive pulse
a) Parallel Capacitor turn off Circuit
Vs and load Rl comprise the main circuit. T1 modulates the power in the load. C,R and T2 are assumed to be off . If T1 is switched
on, so that there is load current i at the same time the capacitor charges up to +Vs on plate Y through R, C and T1. Plate X of
capacitor is virtually at ground potential because T1 is in the zero impedance state. This sets the stage for commutation.
When it is desired to interrupt the load current, T2 is turned ON. This puts the capacitor C in parallel with T1 and the reverse
voltage sitting across C reverse biases T1. If T1 is reverse biased long enough, it will turn off. Capacitor C discharges and charges,
this time becoming positive at X through Rl, C and T2. At some particular time T1 is turned ON again, now the voltage across C
40
reverse biases T2 to turn it off. The capacitor C becomes positively charged at plate Y so that the cycle can be repeated. By
controlling the times that T1 and T2 are allowed to conduct the average power in the load can be adjusted. To be able to do this the
value of the capacitance must be determined.
During Turn Off:
C R
t
L
L
e
R
Vs
t i
=
2
) ( current through the circuit. 2Vs comes from the supply and the capacitor.
The voltage across the thyristor T1 is : ) 2 1 (
1
C R
t
s L s T
L
e V iR V V
= =
The time t1 for the voltage V
T1
to rise to zero is :
) 2 1 (
1
C R
t
s L s T
L
e V iR V V
= = = 0 t1 =0.69R
L
C and this time must be larger than the turn off time of the thyristor T1.
Turn off time of the device is :
L
off
L off
R
t
C C R t
69 . 0
69 . 0
If T1 and T2 have the same turn off times and if R RL then the above value of C will allow satisfactory commutation.
If the capacitor is to charge fully after each switching action, it will take at least 5 (5R
L
C) after T2 has been triggered for this to be
accomplished.
) ( 5
1 1
) ( 5 ) 5 5 (
L
L L
R R T
C R R RC C R T
+
= + = +
Example
Consider a case of parallel capacitance turn off as shown above .The load resistance R
L
=5 and the supply voltage is Vs =120V.
Calculate the minimum value of the capacitor C if the manufacturers specified turn off time for the thyristor is 15s. What is a
suitable value of the resistor R, if the thyristor T1 is triggered on every millisecond?
Solution
C =15s /0.69Rl =4.3F a reasonable value of C could be 5F.
The minimum time of cycle of operation is T =5(R
L
C +RC).
The value of R provides the only adjustments of this time since other parameters are fixed.
Now 5(R
L
C +RC)=1*10
-3
R =41.5
The value of R can be less than 41.5 and this would result in the capacitor charging up faster while T1 is conducting.
b). Auxiliary Resonant Commutation Circuit
This circuit is popular and is used in many inverter and chopper circuits see the circuit diagram first:
T2 is triggered first to order to charge up the capacitor C in the polarity shown. As soon as the capacitor C is charged T2 is
commutated owing to lack of current. When T1 is triggered current flows in two paths, the load current flows in the in Rl and the
commutating current through C, T1, L and D. The charge on the capacitor is reversed and is held with the hold off diode D. At any
desired time T2 may be triggered which then places C across T1 thus turning off T1. The waveforms are shown below.
41
At to T1 is assumed to be conducting
At t4 T1 is switched on and the capacitor will begin to discharge via T1, diode D and the inductance L. During the first period of this
oscillatory discharge, until time t5 a reverse voltage is placed across the commutating thyristor T2. After one half cycle of the
oscillation, at time t6, the current through the diode attempts to reverse and the diode ceases to conduct and the capacitor is charged
in the opposite direction of the figure ready for the next commutation cycle. If say we want to commutate the T1 then T2 is fired and
this places Vc across T1 commutating T1.
The frequency of Oscillation for this circuit is determined by the values of capacitance and the inductor according to the
relationship:
) (
1
LC
=
c) Resonant turn off
There is a series resonant and parallel resonant commutation circuit
Series Resonant Circuit
If an LC network is included as part of the load circuit, the current reversing properties of a tuned LC will force the device to
commutate.
When T1 is triggered, a current flows through the LC circuit charging the capacitor towards the supply voltage.
42
After some time , the magnitude of the current reverses and tries to flow through T1 in opposite direction owing to the resonating
effect of Land C. For proper commutation the LCR circuit must be under-damped to allow current oscillation which will turn off the
thyristor at first current zero. The capacitor will then discharge through the load . The on time of the thyristor is determined by the
frequency of the oscillatory circuit (LC) ) ( 2
) ( 2
1
2
) (
1
LC T
LC
f f
LC
= = = =
The current and voltage waveforms are shown below:
Parallel Resonant Commutation Circuit
When the circuit is switched on and in the absence of gate trigger pulse, the capacitor C is charged up in the polarity shown.
When T1 is triggered , current flows through load resistance Rl and a pulse current through the resonating LC circuit. The capacitor
is discharged from the initial polarity and charges it in the reverse direction. The resonant circuit current then reverses and tries to
flow through T1 in opposite direction to the load current and during this process T1 is turned off.
The thyristor ON period is again a function of the frequency of the oscillation of the LC circuit, while the off period must be sufficient
to allow the capacitor to be adequately charged.
Commutation is accomplished if the resonant current ic reaches a value greater than the load current il for a time greater than toff
turn off time of the thyristor.
The circuit equation for the resonant circuit is:
43
= = + = + = + ) ( * ) ( 0 ) ( ]
1
[ 0 ) ( *
1
0
1
2
2
2
t Sin
L
C
V t i s I
C
L S t i
C
dt
di
L idt
C
dt
di
L
s
The capacitor
voltage at any given time is given my the following relationship:
t Cos V V
s c
=
By design the peak discharge current is:
L
C
V
s
And this should considerably in excess of the load current. Hence:
C
L
R
L
C
R
L
C
V i i
R
V
l
l
s c
L
s
= = = = =
2
max
1
When the thyristor turns off, capacitor has negative charge. The capacitor then charges to a positive value through the load R, L and
C forming a damped resonant circuit.
Example :
A parallel resonant turn off thyristor chopper consisting of an LC circuit in parallel with an SCR supplies an inductive load current
of 20A from a DC source of 400V. Choose suitable values for L and C for turn off so that the trigger pulses have a minimum period
of 0.1msec.
Solution:
Peak current due to oscillatory circuit is Ipeak =
L
C
V
s
20A
400
1
20
1
= =
L
C
L
C
Minimum period (highest chopper frequency) corresponds to half (1/2) periodic time of the oscillatory current that is:
mH L F C LC LC 636 . 0 ; 10 * 5 . 1 10 * 013 . 1 10 * 1 . 0
6 9 3
= = =

Remember capacitor voltage leads current by 90 deg see the current response graph below:
The maximum time ton that the thyristor conducts is from the time it is turned on to the time that the capacitor current reaches its
maximum value in the reverse direction. In terms of the period T this time is 3/4T hence in limit this is :
LC t
on

4
3
= .
DC DC CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
A chopper directly converts a fixed voltage dc supply to a variable voltage dc supply. The chopper can be used to control the speed of a
DC motor.
44
Applications
-Switched mode power supply (SMPS), DC motor Control, Battery chargers
Step Down Chopper (Buck Converter)
A schematic diagram of a step down chopper with a motor load is shown in fig below.
The chopper can be a conventional thyristor (SCR), a GTO thyristor, a power transistor, or a MOSFET.
When the chopper is turned ON say at t=0, the supply is connected to the supply and Vo =V. The load current io builds up. When the
chopper/switch is turned off at t=ton, the load current freewheels through Dfw and Vo =0.
At t=T the switch is turned on again and the cycle repeats. The waveforms of the load voltage and load current are shown in fig above. It
is assumed that the current is continuous, while the voltage is chopped.
The average value of the output voltage is V V
T
ton
V *
0
= =
Where ton is the on time of the chopper
T is the chopping period
=the duty ratio of the chopper
The output voltage can be controlled in the range 0< Vo < V .
If the switch is a GTO thyristor, a positive gate pulse will turn it on and a negative gate pulse will turn it off. If the switch is a transistor,
the base current will control the on and off period of the switch. If the switch is an SCR, a commutation circuit is required to turn it off.
There are many forms of commutation circuits that can be used to force commutate a thyristor.
The power supplied to the motor is
0 0
* * i V i V P
o o
= = .
If we assume a loss less dc-dc converter P
i
=
0 0
* * i V i V P
o o
= =
45
The average value of the input current is
0 0
* * * i I i V I V
s s
= =
The equivalent input resistance of the dc-dc converter drive seen by the source is:
1
*
0
i
V
I
V
R
s
eq
= = . By varying the duty cycle, the
power flow to the motor and the speed can be controlled.
Example
A dc converter as shown above from a 600V dc source powers a dc separately excited motor. The armature resistance is Ra =0.05. The
back emf constant of the motor is k
v
= 1.527V/Arads
-1
.The average armature current is i
o
=250A. The field current is i
f
=2.5A. The
armature current is continuous and has negligible ripple. If the duty cycle of the dc-dc converter is 60% determine:
a) the input power from the source,
b) the equivalent input resistance of the dc-dc converter drive,
c) the motor speed , and
d) the developed torque
Solution
a) the input power from the source is
0 0
* * i V i V P
o o
= = =0.6*600*250 =90kW
b) the input resistance of the dc-dc chopper =
1
*
0
i
V
I
V
R
s
eq
= = =600/(250*0.6)=4
c) the motor speed is determined from * *
f v g
I k E = but
a a a a o
R i V E E R i V
0 0 0
* = + = but
V V
T
ton
V *
0
= = =0.6*600 =360V E
a
=360 250*0.05 =347.5V 347.5
= rpm rps I k E
f v a
27 . 869 03 . 91
5 . 2 * 527 . 1
5 . 347
* * = = = =
d) The developed torque is
a f v
I I k T * * = =1.527*250*2.5 =954.4NM
Step Up Chopper (Boost Converter)
A change in chopper configuration as shown in fig below provides higher load voltages.
When the chopper is ON, the inductor is connected to the supply V and the energy from the supply is stored in it. When the chopper is
off, the inductor current is forced to flow through the diode and the load.
The induced voltage Vl across the inductor is negative. The inductor voltage adds to the source voltage to force the inductor current into
the load. Thus the stored energy in the inductor is released to the load.
If the ripple in the source current is neglected, then during the time the chopper is ON (ton) the energy input to the inductor from the
source is:
on
VIt Ei =
During the time the chopper is off (toff), the energy released by the inductor to the load is:
off o
It V V Eo ) ( =
For a loss less system in the stead state, the two energies will be the same hence:

=
=
+
= =
1
* * * ) (
V
V
T T
T
V
t T
T
V
t
t t
V It V V VIt
on off
off on
o off o on
Thus for a variation of in the range 0< <1, the voltage Vo varies in the range 0< Vo < .
Two Quadrant Chopper
46
A combination of step up and step down configurations can form a two-quadrant chopper. See figure below:
If chopper C1 and diode D1 are operated the system operates as a step down chopper and the dc machine operates as a motor. The output
voltage is either V (when C1 is on) or zero (when C1 is off and D1 conducts).
The average output voltage is positive and the output current io flows as shown in the circuit. The chopper therefore operates in
the first quadrant,
If , however the chopper C2 and the diode D2 are operated , the system operates as a step up chopper with Ea as a source and the
DC machine operates in a regenerative braking mode.
The output is either zero (when C2 is ON) or V (when C2 is Off and D2 conducting).
The average output voltage is positive, but the output current now flows in the negative direction. The chopper then operates in
the fourth quadrant.
Note
The armature of the separately excited motor is rotating due to inertia of the motor and the load; and in case of transportation system, the
kinetic energy of the vehicle or train would rotate the armature shaft. Then if the transistor or chopper is switched on, the armature
current rises due to the short-circuiting of the motor terminals. If the dc dc converter (C2) is turned off, diode D2 would be turned on
and the energy stored in the armature circuit inductance would be transferred to the supply provided the supply is receptive. A single
chopper can be used for both powering and regenerative breaking. In regenerative breaking C1 and D1 are rearranged from powering
mode to regenerative braking. That is D1 and C1 are interchanged.
Example
The two-quadrant chopper shown in fig above is used to control the speed of the dc motor and also for regenerative braking of the motor.
The motor constant is K =0.1V/rpm (Ea=Kn). The chopping frequency is fc =250Hz and the motor armature resistance is Ra =0,2.
The inductance La is sufficiently large and the motor current i
o
can be assumed to be ripple free. The supply voltage is 120V.
a) Chopper C1 and diode D1 are operated to control the speed of the motor. At n=400rpm and io=100A (ripple free),
i) Draw waveforms of v
o
, i
o
and i
s
ii) Determine the turn on time t
on
of the chopper
iii) Determine the power developed by the motor, power absorbed by Ra, and power from the source
b) In the two-quadrant chopper C2 and diode D2 are operated for regenerative breaking of the motor. At n=350rpm and i
o
= -100A
(ripple free),
o
, i
o
and i
s
on
of the chopper
iii) Determine the power developed by the motor, power absorbed by Ra, and power to the source
Solution
a) ( i)
47
ii)
a a a
R I E V + =
0
=0.1*400 +100*0.2 =60V
2
120 * * 60
T
t
T
t
V
T
t
on
on on
= = = but T =1/250 =0.004seconds =4ms hence t
on
=2msec
iii) P
motor
=Ea*Io =0.1*400*100 =4000W
P
R
=(io)
2
*Ra =100
2
*0.2 =2000W
P
s
=V*(is)avg =120*100*2/4 =6000W
b) the waveforms are shown below
i)
ii)
a a a
R I E V + =
0
=0.1*350 +(-100*0.2) =15V
sec 5 . 3 4 *
8
7
120 * * 15 m t
T
t T
V
T
t T
on
on on
= =
=
iii) P
motor
=Ea*Io =0.1*350*(-100) = -3500W
P
R
=(io)
2
*Ra =100
2
*0.2 =2000W
P
s
=V*(i
s
) avg =120*(-100*1/8) =-1500W
The average voltage across the chopper is given for the following circuit used in regenerative brake control:
48
) 1 ( ) (
1

= = =
V T T
T
V
dt V
T
V
s
T
T
ch
If Ia is the armature current, the regenerated power is ) 1 ( = = V I V I Pg
a ch a
The voltage generated by the motor acting as a generator is:
a a a m ch f v g
I R V I R V I k E + = + = = ) 1 (
Where k
v
is the machine constant and is the machine speed in rads/sec. R
a
is the total armature circuit resistance.
Therefore the equivalent load resistance of the motor acting as a generator is:
a
a a
g
eq
R
I
V
I
E
R +
= =
) 1 (
By varying the duty cycle , the equivalent load resistance seen by the motor can be varied from Ra to (V/Ia +Ra) and the regenerative
power can be controlled.
The conditions for the permissible potentials and polarity of two voltages are:
, 0
min min
f v
a a
a a f v a a a a
I k
I R
I R I k E V R I E = = = and >or=
min
. The maximum braking speed of a motor can
be determined from
max max max
; 0 + = =
f v
a a
f v
a a f v a a a
I k
I R
I k
V
I R I k V V R I E .
The regenerative braking would be effective only if the motor speed is between these two speed limits (eg
min
<<
max
). At any speed
less than
min
an alternate braking arrangement would be required. Which could be Rheostatic brake control or combined Regenerative
and Rheostatic brake control
Example
A dc-dc converter is used in regenerative braking of a dc series motor. The DC supply is 600V. The armature resistance is R
a
=0.02 and
the field resistance is R
f
= 0.03. The back emf constant is kv=15.27mv/A rads
-1
.The average armature current is maintained constant at
Ia =250A.The armature current is continuous and has negligible ripple. If the duty cycle of the dc- dc converter is 60%, determine:
a) the average voltage across the dc-dc converter Vch
b) the power regenerated to the dc supply Pg
c) The equivalent load resistance of the motor acting as a generator Req
d) The minimum permissible braking speed
min
,
e) The maximum permissible braking speed
max
.
f) The motor speed
Solution
a) ) 1 ( = V V
ch
= (1-0.6)*600 = 240V
b) Pg =Ia*Vch =250*240 =60kW
c) Req =V/Is = Ea/Ia =(Vch + IaRm) where Rm =0.02+0.03 =0.05 Req =(240+250*0.05)/250 =1.01.
d) , 0
min min
f v
a a
a a f v a a a a
I k
I R
I R I k E V R I E = = =
min
=0.05*250/(15.27mV*250)=3.274rad/s
=31.26rpm
49
e)
max max max
; 0 + = =
f v
a a
f v
a a f v a a a
I k
I R
I k
V
I R I k V V R I E
max
.=600/(0.01527*250)
+0.05/0.01527 =160.445rad/s =15232.14rpm
f)
a a a m ch f v g
I R V I R V I k E + = + = = ) 1 ( Eg =Vch +IaRa =240 +250*0.05 =252.5V
=252.5/(15.27mV*250)=66.14rad/s =631.6rpm
Inverters
These are static circuits that convert power from a dc source to ac power at a specified output voltage and frequency. Inverters are used in
many industrial applications.
For example:
a) Variable speed ac motor drives
b) Induction heating
c) Aircraft power supplies
d) Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) for computers.
There are two types of inverters namely:
i) Voltage source inverters (VSI)
ii) Current Source Inverter (CSI)
Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
In the VSI the input is a dc voltage supply, e.g., battery, fuel cell, soar cell and other dc sources such as output of controlled rectifier.
Both Single phase and three phase voltage sources are used in industry.
Figures illustrating Inverter Configurations
The switching devices can be a conventional thyristor(with its commutation circuit), a GTO thyristor, or a power transistor.
Single Phase VSI- Principle of operation
50
The inverter consists of two choppers. When Q1 is turned on for a time T/2, the instantaneous voltage across the load is V/2.
If only Q2 is turned on for a time T/2, -V/2 appears across the load.
The logic circuit should be designed such that Q1 and Q2 are not turned on at the same time. Third and fourth graphs are for resistive and
inductive loads.
Note that prior to turning on a switch, the other one must be turned off . Otherwise both switches will conduct and short circuit the DC
supply. If the load is inductive, that is a lagging power factor, the output current io also lags the output voltage Vo as shown in the fig
above.
The load current can not change immediately with the output voltage. If Q1 is switched off at T/2, the load current will continue to flow
through D2, load and the lower half of the dc source until the current falls to zero.
Similarly when Q2 is turned off at t=T, the load current flows, through D1, load and upper half of the DC source. When the diodes D1
and D2, conduct, energy is fed back to the dc source and these diodes are known as feedback diodes.
R
V
dt
R
V
T
P
V
dt
V
T
V
T
T
o
orms
4 4
2
2
4
2 2
2 /
0
2
2
1
2
0
2

= = =
=
E.g
A center tapped source inverter as shown above modulates power from a 200V source to a purely resistive load whose value is R=2.If
the thyristors have a duty cycle of 0.4=m. Sketch V
T1
,V
T2
, I
L
, I
T1
, and determine:
a) the average power absorbed by the load,
b) the voltage and current ratings of the switches
Solution
a) Pav =16kW
b) Current rating =100A
51
Waveforms
Single Phase Bridge Inverter
Q1 ,Q2 ,Q3, Q4, are four choppers. Where Q1 and Q2 are turned on simultaneously, the input voltage Vs appears across the load while
Q3 and Q4, the voltage across the load is reversed and is Vs.
If m=duty cycle= Ton/T then the rms voltage is :
Vrms =Vs(2m)
The average power absorbed by the load is P =2mV
2
s/R
Example
The dc source voltage is Vs =600V and the load has a resistance of R=20 if the inverter is to operate at 500Hz with an rms load voltage
of 500V. Find:
a) the average power absorbed by the load
b) the average source current
c) the average current in each thyristor
d) the thyristor on time each period
Solution:
a) 12.5kW
b) 20.83A =Isav
c) Ithav =20.83/2=10.42A
d) Ton =0.694x 10
-3
s

1
Chapter 1
Electronic Drives
Course Outline
The following areas will be covered during our course of study:
Power Electronic Devices:- Characteristics, drive requirements and device protection.
Converters: - DC-DC; DC-AC; AC-DC and Control Techniques
Power and distortion factor; Harmonics and interference
Applications of AC &DC motors:- motor control: variable speed drives, regenerative
breaking, slip energy recovery, four quadrant operation
1.1 Power Semiconductors Converters
The technique for controlling the electric machines has changed in significant ways. For example series
DC motor are used to propel subway cars. The speed of these cars has been controlled by use of
resistances in series with the dc motors as shown in figure below. In recent years there has been use of
Choppers, which can convert a fixed voltage into a variable dc voltage hence controlling the speed of
the car.
Using the appropriate converters can also control other electric machines. The following being the
various types of converters that are frequently used to control electric machines:
AC Voltage Controller (AC to AC): - an ac voltage controller converts a fixed voltage ac to a
variable voltage ac. It can be used to control the speed of an induction motor (voltage control method)
and for smooth induction motor starting.
Controlled Rectifier (AC to DC): - A controlled rectifier converts a fixed voltage ac to a variable
voltage dc. It is used primarily to control the speed of dc motors such as those used in rolling mills.
Chopper (DC to DC): - A chopper converts a fixed voltage dc to a variable DC. It is used primarily to
control the speed of DC motors.
Inverter (DC to AC): - An inverter converts a fixed voltage dc to a fixed (or variable) voltage ac with
variable frequency. It can be used to control the speed of ac motors.
Cycloconverter (AC to AC): - A cycloconverter converts a fixed voltage and fixed frequency ac to a
variable voltage and variable (lower) frequency ac. It can be used to control the speed of ac motors.
High power semiconductor devices are used in these converters to function as on-off switches. The
characteristics of these devices will be looked at first.
2
1.2 Power Semiconductor Devices
The power semiconductor devices generally used in converters can be grouped as follows:
Thyristors (SCR)
Power transistors
Diode rectifiers
These devices are operated in the switching mode so that losses are reduced and
conversion efficiency is improved.
1.2.1Thyristor (SCR)
The Thyristor has a four layer p-n-p-n structure with three terminals, anode (A),
cathode (K), and gate (G) as shown in figure 2 below. The anode and cathode are
connected to the main power circuit. The gate terminal carries a low level gate
current in the direction from the gate to cathode. The Thyristor operates in two
stable states: ON or OFF.
Volt Ampere Characteristics
With zero gate current, if a forward voltage is applied across the device (anode positive with
respect to cathode) junctions 1 and 3 are forward biased while j2 is reverse biased and therefore
the anode current is a small leakage current. If the anode to cathode forward voltage reaches the
critical limit called the forward breakover voltage (VBO) the device switches into high conduction.
The device is said to be latched I
L
. Latching current is defined as the minimum anode current that
a Thyristor must attain during turn on process to maintain conduction when the gate is removed or
current required to maintain regeneration. If gate currents are introduced the VBO is reduced. For
a sufficiently high gate current the entire forward blocking region is removed and the device
behaves as a diode. When the device is conducting the gate current can be removed and the device
remains in the on state.
If the anode current falls below the critical limit called the holding current I
h
, the device returns to
its forward blocking state. See the I/V characteristic
3
Switching Characteristics
If a Thyristor is forward biased and a gate pulse is applied, the Thyristor switches on. However,
once the Thyristor starts conducting an appreciable forward current (regeneration taking place), the
gate has no control on the device. The Thyristor will turn off if the anode current becomes zero
called natural commutation or is forced to become zero called forced commutation.
It is necessary to keep the device reverse biased for a finite period of time before a forward anode
voltage can be applied otherwise if applied at a less time it would conduct. This period is known as
the turnoff time, t
off
of the Thyristor. The turnoff time of the Thyristor is defined, as the minimum
time interval between the instant the anode current becomes zero and the instant the device is
capable of blocking the forward voltage.
See fig 3 below for the switching characteristics of a Thyristor
The Thyristor is switched on by a gate pulse i
g
and when the gate pulse is applied at instant t
1
,
anode current I
A
builds up and the voltage across the device V
AK
falls. When the device is fully
turned on the voltage across it is quite small (typically 1 to 2.5V, the higher voltage drop for higher
current devices) and for all practical purposes the device behaves as a short circuit. The device
switches on very quickly, the turn-on time ton being typically 1 to 3microseconds. Typically the
gate pulse is in the range of 10 to 50microsec and its amplitude in the range 20 to 200mA. If the
current through the thyristor is to be switched off at a desired instant t2, it is momentarily reverse
biased by making the cathode positive with respect to the anode. For this forced commutation a
commutation circuit is required as shown later. In most commutation circuits a pre-charged
capacitor is momentarily connected across the conducting thyristor to reverse bias it. If the device
is reverse biased, its current falls, becomes zero at t3, then reverses and becomes zero at t4. At
instant t5, the device is capable of blocking a forward voltage. The time interval from t3 to t5 is
known as the turnoff time of the thyristor. If a forward voltage appears at instant t6 the time
4
interval t3 to t6 is known as the circuit turn-off time, tq. In practical applications, the turnoff time
tq provided to the SCR by the circuit, must be greater than the device turn-off time toff by a
suitable safety margin; otherwise the device will turn on at an undesired instant, a process known
as commutation failure.
Thyristors with large turnoff time 50-100microsec are called slow switching or phase control type
thyristors and those having small turnoff time (10-50microsec) are called fast switching or inverter
type thyristors.
Note that during thyristor turn on, if the voltage is high, current is low and vice versa. Therefore
the turn on switching loss is low. During thyristor turnoff also, if the reverse current is small, the
turnoff switching loss is low. The low switching loss in a thyristor is a significant advantage,
particularly for high frequency applications
1.2.2 TURN ON METHODS
With anode positive with respect to cathode a Thyristor can be turned on any one
of the following techniques
a) Forward voltage triggering
b) Gate triggering
c) dv/dt triggering
d) Temperature triggering
e) Light triggering
Points a) and b) have already been dealt with
c) dv/dt triggering: - if the rate of rise of anode cathode voltage is high the charging current of
the capacitive junctions j1,j2, and j3 may be sufficient to turn on the thyristors. However a high
value of charging current may damage the Thyristor and the device must be protected against high
dv/dt.
d) Temperature triggering: - During forward blocking most of the applied voltage appears across
the reverse biased junction J2. This voltage associated with leakage currents may raise the
temperature of this junction. With increase in temperature, leakage current through J2 further
increases. This cumulative process may turn on the scr at some high temperature
e) Light triggering: - A niche is made on the p-layer as shown below. When the niche is irradiated
by light, free charge carriers (holes and electrons) are generated just like when the gate signal is
applied between the gate and the cathode
1.2.3 Gate Characteristic
As an approximation, gate to cathode junction can be taken as a PN diode and its
V/I characteristic will approach that of a diode see figure below
5
This information can be used to sketch the gate characteristic and triggering region of a Thyristor.
Gate characteristic of Thyristor
For a particular type of SCR Vg and Ig characteristic has a spread between two curves, Upper and
Lower limit. Ox and Oy refer to minimum gate current and voltage to trigger the Thyristor. Vgm
and Igm are maximum permissible gate voltage and gate current. Oa non-triggering gate voltage.
The preferred gate drive area for an SCR is bcdefghb.
All spurious or noise signals should be less than the voltage oa . The design of a firing circuit can
be carried out with the help of figures below.
Considering fig a Es =Vg + IgRs. A resistance R1 is connected across gate cathode terminals so
as to provide an easy path to the flow of leakage current between SCR terminals.
6
If Igmn and Vgmn are the minimum gate current and gate voltage to turn on SCR then from fig b
, current through R1 is Vgmn/R1.
Es =(Igmn + Vgmn/R1)Rs+Vgmn =IRs +Vgmn
Using gate circuit of higher magnitude can reduce the SCR turn on time. Gate drive requirements
can be obtained from the graph below:
AD is the load line
Curve 3 is for a thyristor whose Vg/Ig give the operating point S and Vg=PS and Ig =OP. To
minimize the turn on time and unreliable turn on, the operating points may vary between S1 and
S2 and must be close to the Pgav curve as possible. The gradient of the load line AD =OA/OD will
give the required gate source resistance Rs.
The minimum value of gate source series resistance is obtained by drawing a line AC tangent to
Pgav.
With pulse triggering, greater amount of gate power dissipation can be allowed. This should
however be less than peak instantaneous gate power dissipation Pgm.
Pulse gating
fT
P
P P Tf P P
T
T P
gav
gm gav gm gav
gm

1
.
where f=1/T1 =frequency of firing and T=
pulse width. In the limiting case P
gav
/fT =P
gm
.
A duty cycle is the ratio of ON time to periodic time fT
T
T
= =
1
.
Example
Given the gate cathode characteristic of an SCR to be having a straight-line
slope 130. If the trigger source voltage is 15V and the allowable gate power
dissipation is 0.5watts. Compute the gate source resistance.
7
Solution
V
g
I
g
=0.5W ..(1) and V
g
/ I
g
=130 V
g
=130I
g
..(2) Substituting 2 into 1
gives:
V mA x I V mA I I
g g g g
06 . 8 62 130 130 62 5 . 0 130
2
= = = = =
Now for the gate circuit E
s
=I
g
R
s
+V
g.
15 =62mA*Rs + 8.06 Rs =112
Example 2
The trigger circuit of a Thyristor has a source voltage of 15V and the load line has a slope of
120V/A. The minimum gate current to turn on the SCR is 25mA.
Determine :
a) Source resistance required in the gate circuit,
b) The trigger voltage and trigger current for an average gate power dissipation of 0-.4W
Solution
a) The slope of the load line gives Rs =120
b) VgIg =0.4W and for the gate circuit Es =RsIg +Vg 15=120Ig +0.4/Ig Ig =38.6mA
or 86.4mA Vg =10.37V or 4.63V. Choose Vg =4.627V and Is =86.4mA.
1.2.4 Parallel and Series Operation of Thyristors
To accommodate high load currents a parallel connection of thyristors can be
used. If the simple connection is used fig (a) then differences in the individual
thyristors will result in an unequal current sharing of current between them. This
sharing can be evened out by careful selection of matched devices, by the use of
series resistance as in fig (b) or by including current sharing reactors fig(c).
8
Fig b is shown below:
Example
Two thyristors are connected as in fig a above and have forward characteristics when
conducting of the form:
Thyristor 1 v= 0.96 +2.52 *10
-4
i1
Thyristor 2 v= 0.92 +2.40 *10
-4
i2
i) What will be the current distribution between the two thyristors when the total current
is 1400A.
ii) What value of resistance added in series with each thyristor will result in the thyristors
being within 5% of each other for the same total current?
Solution
i) V= 0.96 +2.52 *10
-4
i1=0.92 +2.40 *10
-4
i2 and i1 + i2 = 1400
Hence 0.96 +2.52 *10
-4
i1=0.92 +2.40 *10
-4
(1400-i1)
Giving i1 =601.6A and i2 =798.4A
iii) Maximum current =1400A hence Maximum current difference =5%*1400=70A . We
noted from above i2 is greater than i1 hence
i2-i1 =70A and i1+12 =1400A
2i2 =1470 i2=735A and i1=665A
0.96 +2.52 *10
-4
i1+Ri1 =0.92 +2.40 *10
-4
i2 +Ri2
R=0.445m
Transient or Dynamic Current Sharing
If current through T1 rises Ldi/dt across L1 increases and a corresponding voltage of opposite
polarity is induced across inductor L2. The result is a low impedance path through T2 and the
current is shifted to T2. The reverse is true
At turn on the thyristors gate circuits must all be driven from the same source to force a
simultaneous turn on of all devices. To prevent any individual thyristors from turning off if its
9
current falls below its holding current level , a continuous gate signal is normally used to ensure
immediate re-firing.
Where high voltage levels are encountered thyristors are connected in series to share the voltage.
If the connection shown below is used then the differences between devices can result in an
unequal voltage sharing between them.
R1 C and R2 C are for dynamic situation. R is used to try and equate the voltages sitting on the
thyristors and the determination of R is based on the following diagram and assumptions.
Assumptions:-
1) there are n thyristors
2) The value of R is a maximum to limit the current
3) Consider the case that T1 has a negligible leakage current and others have maximum
leakage current Ileak. This is the worst case and it indicates that the voltage V2 sits
across all thyristors except T1 .
4) The source voltage Vs is the maximum that can be applied when R is used.
5) The value of V1 across T1 is the peak voltage rating of the thyristors .That is the
maximum voltage T1 will support i.e T1 will support a larger voltage than the
remaining (n-1) thyristors which share voltage equally.
From Kirchhoffs voltage law Vs =V1+V2(n-1)1 and from Kirchhoffs current
law Is1 =Is2 +Ileak.2
Also from Ohms law Is1 =V1/R.3 and Is2 =V2/R ..4.
Eliminating V2, Is1 and Is2 we have from 1 and 4 Vs =V1 +V2(n-1) but V2 =Is2 R
Vs =V1 +Is2R (n-1).
From 2 Is2=Is1-Ileak Vs =V1 + (n-1)(Is1-Ileak)R
R =(nV1-Vs)/(n-1)Ileak
10
1.2.5 Thyristor Types
Depending on the physical construction and turn on and turn off behaviour
thyristors can be classified broadly into different categories:
1.2.5.1 A TRIAC (Bi-directional Triode Thyristor)
A TRIAC can be considered as an integration of two SCRs in inverse parallel. It can conduct in
both directions and is normally used in ac- phase control.
TRIAC
When terminal A1 is positive with respect to terminal A2 and the device is fired by a positive gate
current +ig, it turns on. Also when terminal A2 is positive with respect to terminal A1 and the
device is fired by a negative gate current ig, the device turns on.
A TRIAC is frequently used in many low power applications such as juice mixers, blenders,
vacuum cleaners, etc. There is also what is called a DIAC similar to a TRIAC but does not have a
gate input.
1.2.5.2 A GTO (Gate Turn Off) Thyristor
A single pulse of positive gate can turn ON this thyristor, but in addition a pulse of negative gate
can turn it off current. A gate current therefore controls both the On state and Off State operation
of the device. See fig below for the symbol and switching characteristics:
GTO Thyristor
The turn on process is the same as that of a Thyristor .The turn off process is somehow different.
When a negative voltage is applied across the gate and cathode terminals, the gate and cathode
terminals , the gate current ig rises. When the gate current reaches its maximum value Igr, the
anode current begins to fall and the voltage across the device Vak, begins to rise. The fall time
of Ia is abrupt typically less than 1sec. Thereafter the anode current changes slowly, and this
portion of the anode current is known as the tail current
The ratio( Ia/Igr) of the anode current Ia (prior to turn off ) to the maximum negative gate current
Igr required to turn off a Thyristor is low typically between 3 and 5. For example , a 2500V, 100A
11
GTO typically requires a peak negative current of 250A to turn it off. GTOs that can operate up to
4500V, 2000 A, 5-10sec are available. These are becoming increasingly popular in power control
equipment and GTOs will replace thyristors where forced commutation is necessary as in choppers
and inverters.
1.2.6 Power Transistors
A transistor is a three layer p-n-p or n-p-n semiconductor device having two junctions. This type of
a transistor is known as a bipolar junction transistor (BJT). The structure and the symbol of an n-p-
n transistor are shown below.
Transistor
The collector and the emitter terminals are connected to the main power circuit, and the base
terminal is connected to control signal. If the base current is zero, the transistor is in the off state
and behaves as an open switch. On the other hand if the base is driven hard , that is if the base
current Ib is sufficient to drive the transistor into saturation, then the transistor behaves as a closed
switch. The transistor is current driven device. The base current determines whether it is in the off
or On state. To keep the device in the on state there must be sufficient base current. Transistors
with high voltage and current ratings are known as the power transistors. The current gain Ic/Ib of
power transistor can be as low as 10, although it is higher than that of a GTO. Higher current gain
can be obtained by use of a Darlington Pair.
Power transistors switch on and off much faster than thyristors. They may switch on in less than
1sec and turn off in less than 2sec.. Hence the power transistors can be used in situations where
the frequency is as high as 100kHz. These devices however fail under certain high voltage and
high current conditions. They should be operated within specified limits known as the safe
operating areas (SOA). The SOA is partitioned into four regions defined by the following limits:
Peak current limit (ab)
Power dissipation limit (bc)
Secondary breakdown limit (cd)
Peak voltage limit (de)
Safe Operating Area (SOA)
12
If high voltage and high current occur simultaneously during turn off, a hot spot is formed and the
device fails by thermal runaway, a phenomenon known as second breakdown.
Figure below shows the effects of the snubber circuit on the turnoff characteristics of a power
transistor. A chopper circuit with an inductive load is considered.
If no snubber circuit is used and the base current is removed to turn off the transistor, the voltage across
the device Vce first rises, and when it reaches the dc supply voltage Vd, the collector current falls. The
power dissipation P during the turnoff interval is shown in the figure above by the dashed line. Note
that the peaks of Vce and Ic occur simultaneously, and this may lead to secondary breakdown
failure.
If the snubber circuit is used and base current is removed to turn off the transistor ,
the collector current is diverted to the capacitor. The collector current therefore,
decreases as the collector emitter voltage increases, avoiding the simultaneous
occurrence of peak voltage and peak current.
Power transistors of ratings as high as 1000V,500A are available
13
Linear approximations of Switching intervals for a purely Resistive load
The collector emitter voltage during switching on falls from Vs to almost zero and the expression for
the voltage is given by:
s
on
on
ce
V
t
t t
V *
= where t is the instantaneous time

the current rises and the expression is given by
on
m
c
t
t I
i
*
=
Similarly during turn off the collector current and the collector emitter voltage is given by:
off
off m
c
on
s
ce
t
t t I
i
t
t V
V
) (
&
*

= =
With the collector emitter voltage and the collector current expressions above the power losses
during turn on and during turn off can be determined.
Peak loss occur at dp/dt =0. Power loss during switching on is given by:
t t
t
t I V
t
I V
dt
dp
t
t
t
t
I V P
on
on
m s
on
m s on
on on
m s on
2
2
) (
2 2
2
= = =
That is ton is the time at which instantaneous power would be maximum. The switch on and off loss
for a resistive load is given by:

= = = =
6
) 1 ( * ;
6
* ) 1 (
0
off m s
off off
m s off
t
on m s
on
m
on
s on
t I V
dt
t
t
t
t
I V W
t I V
dt
t
t
I
t
t
V W
on
The average power loss due to switching is obtained by multiplying energy loss by the switching
frequency i.e power =energy/time =energy *frequency.
Example
A power transistor has its switching waveforms as shown below. If the average power loss in the
transistor is limited to 300W, find the switching frequency at which the transistor can be
operated?
14
Energy loss during turn on and turn off is given by the following illustration:
sec 1603 . 0
75
10 *
* 200 * )
60
10 *
1 ( 100
sec 1067 . 0 )
40
10 *
1 ( * 200 *
50
10 * * 100
*
6 6
6 6
= =
= = =

watt dt
t t
Woff
watt dt
t t
vdt ic W
ton
o
ton
o
on
Therefore energy loss in one cycle =0.1603+0.1067 =0.267watt-sec =E
But the power loss in the transistor is limited to 300W
Hence frequency =f =300/0.267 =123.6Hz.
DIODE
A diode is a two-layer p-n semiconductor device. The structure of a diode and its symbol are in
figure 7 below
From V/I characteristic it can be noted that if a reverse voltage is applied across the diode, it behaves
essentially as an open circuit. If a forward voltage is applied, it starts conducting and behaves
essentially as a closed switch. Following the end of a forward conduction in a diode, a reverse current
flows for a short time . The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current
ceases. The time interval during which reverse current flows is called reverse recovery time. This
reverse recovery characteristic is of great significance in high frequency applications.
1.2.7 Protection
The reliable operation of a converter would require ensuring that at all times the circuit conditions do
not exceed the ratings of the power devices, by providing protection against overvoltage; overcurrent
and overheating. In practice the power devices are protected from:
Thermal runaway by heat sinks
High dv/dt and di/dt by snubbers
Reverse recovery transients
Supply and load side transients
Faulty conditions by fuses
15
1.2.7.1 Cooling and heat sinks
Due to on state and switching losses, heat is generated within the power device. This heat must be
transferred from the device to a cooling medium to maintain the operating junction temperature within
a specified range.
Although the heat transfer can be accompanied by conduction, convection, radiation or natural or
forced air, convection cooling is commonly used in industrial applications.
Cooling methods
6) Air coolers:- Air surrounding the device is heated through radiation and once heated
natural convection takes place.
7) Forced Cooling:- This includes forced convection. A fan is used to push air past a
heated surface. This causes the thermal resistance to decrease. The thermal resistance
decreases with air velocity. However above a certain velocity the reduction in
thermal resistance is not significant
8) Heat Sinks: - A wide variety of extruded aluminium heat sinks are commercially
available and use cooling fins to increase the heat transfer capability. The contact is
between the device and heat sink is extremely important to minimise the thermal
resistance between the case and sink. The surfaces should therefore be smooth and
free of dust/dirt, corrosion and surface oxides. Silicon grease is normally applied to
improve the heat transfer capability and to minimise the formation of oxides and
corrosion.
9) Heat pies:-These are pipes filled with low vapour pressure liquid. The liquid once
heated it is changed to vapour and goes to the fins and the vaporised liquid lose its
heat through the fins and quickly changes back to liquid and returns to the heat
source. This is heated again and the cycle continues.
10) Liquids:- in high power applications the devices are more effectively cooled by
liquids , normally water or oil. Water-cooling is very efficient and approximately
three times more effective than oil cooling. However it is necessary to use distilled
water to minimize corrosion and antifreeze to avoid freezing. Oil is flammable but
eliminates problems of freezing and corrosion.
Thermal resistance (R ).
Heat flow by conduction is very much alike the conduction of electrical charge i.e current
R
V V
I
1 2
= . Similarly power is the rate of flow of heat energy and is proportional to the difference
in temperature across the region through which the heat is conducted i.e:

R
T T
R
T
P
1 2

=
=
Thermal Model
16
Tj is the junction temperature
Rjc:- thermal resistance from junction to case in
o
c/w.
Rcs:- thermal resistance from case to sink in
o
c/w.
Rsa:- thermal resistance from sink to ambient in
o
c/w.
Ts:- is the heat sink temperature
Ta:- is the ambient temperature.
From the expression

R
T T
R
T
P
1 2

=
= it can be noted that power is constant hence:

ja
a s
cs
s c
jc
c j
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
R
T T
R
T
P

=
1 2
But
sa cs jc jja
ja
a j
a th
R R R R
R
T T
I V P

+ + = = =

& * it is from this equation and data sheets for
heat sinks and thyristors that the type and size of heat sink is derived.
Example
The collector to base junction of a certain transistor dissipates 2W. The thermal resistance from the
junction to the case is 8
o
c/w and the thermal resistance from the case to air is 20
o
c/w. The free air
temperature is 25
o
c. Determine:
a) the junction temperature
b) the case temperature
Solution
a)
c T
T
R
T T
R
T
j
j
ja
a j
0
81
20 8
25
2 =
+
=

b) Similarly P=2 Tc =65
o
c.
2) di/dt protection
If the current in a thyristor rises at too high a rate, that is high di/dt, the device can be destroyed. Some
inductance must be present or inserted in series with the thyristor so that di/dt is below a safe limit
specified by the manufacturer. Typically di/dt limit values for SCRs are 20 500A/microsec
3) dv/dt Protection
If the entire anode to cathode forward voltage Va appears across J2, the charge on the junction is Q,
then the charging current is given by:
dt
dVa
Cj
dt
dCj
Va
dt
dVa
Cj dt CjVa d
dt
dq
i = + = = = / ) ( Since Cj is a constant. If dVa/dt is high,
the charging current will be more. This charging current will play the role of gate current and turns on
the SCR even when the gate signal is zero. As a result dv/dt must be kept low. Typical values are 20-
500V/microsec.
Power devices are protected from excessive di/dt and dv/dt by adding an inductor and snubber circuits
see fig below:
17
A snubber circuit consists of a series combination of resistance R and capacitor C in parallel with
thyristor. Before the thyristor is fired, C charges to full supply voltage Vs. Once on the capacitor
discharges through the thyristor hence the need for an R to limit the discharge of C.
Example
Figure below shows a thyristor controlling the power to the load of resistance RL. The supply voltage
is 240V dc and the specified limits for di/dt and dv/dt for the SCR are 50A/sec and 300V/sec
respectively. Determine the values of the inductance and the snubber circuit parameters R and C.
Solution:
When the switch is closed the capacitor behaves like a short circuit and the SCR is in forward blocking
state and offers a high resistance.
RL R
L
RL R
Vs
I where e I i
dt
Ldi
i RL R Vs
t
+
=
+
= = + + =

& 1 )....... 1 ( ) (
Now di/dt from 1 gives:

t t
e
L
Vs
Ie
dt
di

= =
1
* The value of di/dt is a maximum when t=0 that is at point of switching on.
H
dt
di
Vs
L
L
Vs
dt
di
8 . 4 50 / 10 * 240
6
= = = =

.
The voltage across the SCR is given by
=
=
= = = 6
* /
/ / * R
L
Vs R dt dv
L Vs dt di but
dt
di
R
dt
dva
i R Va
The voltage across the capacitor is given by :
6
10 * ) 300 ( 6
240
) (
* ) 1 ( = =
C
dt
dVc
R
Vs
C e
CR
Vs
dt
dVc
e Vs Vc
CR
t
CR
t
1.2.7.2 Overvoltage Protection
Switching transients usually appear across the converter and these cause overvoltages. This effect of
overvoltages is usually minimised by use of snubber circuits, non linear resistors called voltage
clamping devices (VARISTORS); Metal oxide Varistors MOVs as well as selenium diodes.
18
The VARISTORS, snubber circuits, and selenium diodes are connected in parallel with the converter.
The voltage clamping devices have falling resistance characteristic with increasing voltage . When a
voltage surge appears, the voltage-clamping device operates in the low resistance region and produces
a virtual short circuit across the power device limiting the amount of the transient voltage. After the
surge energy is dissipated in the non linear resistor , the operation of the voltage clamping device
returns to its high resistance region. Under normal operating conditions these devices draw very small
current.
1.2.7.3 Overcurrent Protection
a) The power converters may develop short circuits or faults and the resultant fault currents must
leared quickly. Fast acting fuses are normally used to protect the semiconductor devices. As
the faulty current increases the fuse opens and clears the fault current in milliseconds
The operation of the fast acting fuse is illustrated below
The current limiting fuse consists of one or more fine silver ribbons having very short fusing times. If
we assume that the a fault occurs at t=0, without the fuse the fault current would rise up to A and up to
or beyond D.
A properly selected fuse melts at A. For a brief moment or interval after A, the current continues to rise
depending upon the circuit parameters and fuse design. This current reaches the peak let through
current B, after B the arc resistance increases and fault current decreases. At point C arcing stops and
the fault current is cleared. The total arcing time is tc =tm + ta.
The current time curves of the devices and fuses may be used for the coordination of a fuse for a
device see figures below:
19
The fault is normally cleared in 10msec. The fuse must be rated to carry full load current plus marginal
overload current for an indefinite period, but the peak let through current of fuse must be less than the
surge current of the SCR.
If R is the resistance of the fault circuit and I is the instantaneous fault current between the instant of
fault occurring and the instant of arc extinction, the energy fed to the circuit is
= dt Ri We
2
.
If R remains constant , the value of i
2
t is proportional to the energy fed to the circuit. The i
2
t value is
termed the let through energy and is responsible for melting the fuse. The fuse manufacturers specify
the i
2
t of characteristic of a fuse. In selecting the fuse it is necessary to estimate the fault current and
then to satisfy the following requirements:
These fuses must take account of :
a) the need to permit the continuous passage of the steady- state load current.
b) Permitted overload conditions including transients.
c) Prospective fault conditions
d) The I
2
t rating of the device the fuse must clear the fault before the I
2
t limit is reached
e) The fuse must be able to withstand the voltage after the arc extinction.
f) The peak arc voltage must be less than the peak voltage rating of the device
Crowbar Protection Circuit
A current sensing resistor R1 detects the value of the converter current. If it exceeds preset value , gate
circuit provides the signal to the craw bar SCR and turns it on. The input terminals are then short
circuited by the craw bar SCR and it shunts away the converter over current. Thus causing F1 to
breakdown and interrupting the fault current. Also R2 and R3 can be used for overvoltage protection. If
Vfb exceeds the set voltages, the SCR is also switched on eliminating the overvoltage.
20
Chapter 2
2.1 Diode Rectifiers
A rectifier is a circuit that converts ac signal to DC. Diodes are taken as ideal i.e Voltage across a diode
=0 .
2.1.1 Single phase half wave Rectifiers
Performance Parameters
As noted above the output voltage is discontinuous and contains harmonics. The power processing
quality of a rectifier requires the determination of harmonic contents of the input current, the output
voltage. The average output load voltage is = Vdc and load current is Idc.
Therefore the output dc power is Pdc =Vdc*Idc. The rms value of voltage and current is Vrms and
I
rms
. Therefore output ac power Pac =V
rms
*I
rms
.
The efficiency or the rectification ratio of a rectifier is given by =Pdc/Pac
The output voltage voltage can be considered to be composed of two components:-
1) the dc value
2) the ac component or ripple.
The effective rms value of the ac component of output voltage is determined from:
2 2 2 2 2
dc rms ac dc ac rms
V V V V V V = + =
The form factor, which is a measure of the shape of output voltage, is: FF =Vrms/Vdc.
The ripple factor, which is a measure of the ripple content is defined as
RF =Vac/Vdc 1
2
2 2
=
= FF
Vdc
V V
RF
dc rms
Transformer utilization factor is defined as TUF =Pdc/Vs*Is where Vs and Is are the rms
voltage and rms current of the transformer secondary, respectively (VA of the transformer
secondary)
Let us consider the waveforms of figure below where Vs is the instantaneous, sinusoidal input voltage,
is is the instantaneous input current and is1 is its fundamental component. See figure below
21
If is the angle between the fundamental component of the input current and voltage it is called the
displacement angle. The displacement factor is defined as Cos DF = .
The harmonic factor ( a measure of the distortions of a waveform) is defined as
2
1
2
1
2 2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1

=
s
s
s
s s
I
I
I
I I
HF where Is1 is the fundamental component of the input current Is.
Both Is1 and Is are expressed in rms. The input power factor PF is defined as
PF =Vs Is1Cos/ Vs Is =Is1 Cos /Is.
Crest Factor (CF) is a measure of the peak input current Ipeak as compared with its r.m.s value Is.
CF =Ipeak/Is This helps in specifying the peak current ratings of devices and components..
Note :
If the input current is is purely sinusoidal Is1 =Is and the power factor PF equals the displacement
factor DF. The displacement angle becomes the impedance angle = tan
-
(L/R ) for an RL load.
2. Displacement factor is often known as displacement power factor (DPF)
Example :-
The rectifier above has a purely resistive load of R. determine :
a) the efficiency
b) The FF
c) The RF
d) The TUF
e) The PIV of diode
f) The CF of the input current
Solution
First we determine the average output voltage Vdc:
( )
R
V
R
V
I
V
t
Cos
T
V
dt T Sin V
T
V
m dc
dc
m
m
T
m dc
318 . 0
1
2
*
1
2
0
= = =
= =
and
R
V
R
V
I
V
dt t Sin V
T
I
V
m rms
rms
m
T
m rms
5 . 0
2
*
2
1
2
0
2 2
= = =

a) efficiency =Pdc/Pac =Vdc*Idc/Vrms*Irms =40.5%
b) FF =Vrms/Vdc =0.5Vm/0.318Vm =157%
c) RF =121%
d) The transformer secondary rms voltage is :
R
V
R
V
I V
V
dt t Sin V
T
I
V
m rms
rms m
m
T
m rms
5 . 0
707 . 0
2
*
2
1
2
1
1
0
2 2
= = = =

Note the rms current comes in only when the diode is conducting.
The Voltage Ampere of the transformer is VA =Vs*Is =0.707Vm *0.5Vm/R
Therefore TUF =Pdc/VsIs =0.318
2
/0.707*0.5 =0.286
d) The PIV =Vm
e) Ipeak =Vm/R and Is =0.5Vm/R therefore the CF =Ipeak/Is =2
Half wave rectifier with RL load
Due to inductive load , the conduction period of diode D1 will extend beyond 180 deg until the current
becomes zero at t = +:
22
The average output voltage is given by:
( )
R
V
I Cos
V
t d t Sin V V
dc
dc
m
m dc
= +
+
= =
+
1
1
2
*
2
1
1
0

It can be noted that the average voltage and current can be increased by making =0, which is
possible by adding a freewheeling diode Dm.
If the output of the circuit is connected to the battery the rectifier becomes a battery charger seefig
below:
For Vs >E diode D1 conducts ,from to . The angle can be determined from VmSin =E
=Sin
-1
(E/Vm) and diode D1 is turned off when Vs< E at .= -. . And the charging current is :
io =(Vs-E)/R =(Vm Sin t E)/R for < t< .
Example
The battery voltage in figure above is E=12V and its capacity is 100Wh. The average charging current
shuld be Idc =5A.The primary input voltage is Vp 120V, 60Hz and the transformer has a turns ratio of
n=2 calculate:-
a) Conduction angle of the diode
b) The current limiting resistance R
c) The power rating of R
d) The charging time in hours (ho)
e) The rectifier efficiency
f) The PIV of the diode
Solution
E=12V;Vp =120V; Vs =Vp/2 =120/2 =60V and Vm =60* 2
0.5
= 84.85V
a) =Sin
-1
(12/84.85) =8.13 deg and .= -. =180-8.13 =171.87 therefore the Conduction
angle = . -. =171.87-8.13 =163.74 deg.
b) The average charging current Idc is
t d
R
E t Sin V
Idc
m
*
2
1
remember
.= -. R =4.26
c) The rms battery current is : t d
R
E t Sin V
I
m
rms

=
2
2
2
) (
2
1
I=8.2A The power
rating of R is Pr =8.2*8.2*4.26 =286.4W
23
d) The power delivered Pdc to the battery is Pdc =E*Idc =12*5 =60W. Now the battery
capacity =100Wh =Power * Time; charging time ho =100Wh/Powerho =100Wh/60W
=1.67hrs.
e) The rectifier efficiency = % 3 . 17
4 . 286 60
60
=
+
=
+
=
R dc
dc
P P
P
f) The peak inverse voltage of the diode =PIV =Vm +E =84.85 +12 =96.85V
Single-phase full wave Rectifiers
A full wave rectifier circuit with a center tapped transformer circuit is shown in fig above. The
average output voltage is:
V
V
tdt Sin V
T
Vdc
m
T
m
637 . 0
2
2
2
0
= = =
Instead of using center tapped transformer four diodes can be used as shown below:
The peak inverse voltage of a diode is Vm. This is a bridge rectifier and it is commonly used in
industrial applications.
Three phase Bridge Rectifiers
A three-phase bridge rectifier is commonly used in high power applications see the circuit
diagram below:
24
This can operate with/out a transformer and gives six pulses/ ripples on the output
voltage. Each diode conducts 120 deg. The conduction sequence for diodes is D1-
D2; D3-D2; D3-D4;D4-D5; D5-D6 and D1-D6. The pair of diodes having the
highest of amount of instantaneous line-to-line voltage will conduct.
If Vm is the peak value of the phase voltage then the instantaneous voltages are
given by:: ; t Sin V Van
m
= ) 120 ; ( = t Sin V Vbn
m
); 240 ( = t Sin V Vcn
m

CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
A controlled rectifier converts ac power to dc power. Controlling the instants at which the
semiconductor devices switch can control the output voltage and power.
Thus controlled rectifiers can be used to control the speed of a DC motor. Some controlled rectifiers
can convert DC to ac and that is Inversion.
Thyristor Rectifier, Resistive load
A simple thyristor rectifier circuit consisting of a single thyristor and a resistance load is shown in
below.
Fig Thyristor rectifier with resistive load circuit and waveforms
The thyristor is forward biased during the intervals 0<t <, 2<t<3, etc. A
gate pulse is applied at an angle . This angle is known as the firing angle of the
thyristor. The thyristor current becomes zero at t =,3, etc, and the thyristor
conducts from to ,2 +, to 3, etc. During the interval when the thyristor
25
conducts, known as conduction interval, the load voltage is the same as the supply
voltage, Vo =V and the average voltage is determined below:
We noted for a single phase diode rectifier circuit consisting of a resistive load, is:
t Sin V v
p
2 = Then the average value of the load is given by
p
p o
V
t d t Sin V v
2
2
2
1
0
= =
Thyristor Rectifier, Resistive Load

The thyristor is forward biased during the interval 0-180 and 360-540 degrees.
The thyristor is fired at an angle and conduct for a conduction angle . The average value of the load
is :
) 1 (
2
); 1 (
2
) (
2
1
0
Cos
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin V Vo
L
o
m
m
+ = + = =
The load voltage will vary with the variation of and becomes maximum at =0 and zero at = .
V
dc max
=V
m
/ and occurs at =0, Idc max = V
m
/ R = I
m
/ .
The rms load voltage for a given firing angle is:
2
1
2
1
2 2
)
2
2 sin
(
1
2
) (
2
1
+ =
m
m rms
V
t d t Sin V V
And the rms load current is given by the expression:
[ ]
2
; )
2
2
(
1
2
max
2
1
m
rms
L
m
L
rms
rms
V
V
Sin
R
V
R
V
I = + = =

The average power P in the load for any trigger angle is given by P =Vdc*Idc.
Example1
A 100 load is connected to a peak supply of 300V through a controlled half wave thyristor rectifier.
The load average power is to be varied from 25W to 80W. What is the angular firing control required?
Neglect forward drop of the thyristor.
26
Solution
And ) 1 (
2
); 1 (
2
) (
2
1
Cos
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin V Vo
L
m
o
m
m
+ = + = =
Power =P =
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
) 1 ( 5 . 22 ) 1 (
100 * 4
300
) 1 (
4

Cos Cos Cos

R
V
L
m
+ = + = +
8857 . 0 556 . 3 1 ) 1 ( 556 . 3 ) 1 ( 5 . 22 80
2 2
= = + + = + = Cos Cos Cos Cos
Therefore =27.66
0
.At a power of 25W the firing angle is 87,3
0
.
Most practical Loads have resistance and inductance L, e.g. the armature of a dc motor load has
resistance (R) and inductance (L). When a thyristor is fired at the inductance in the load forces the
current to lag the voltage and decays to zero at . The waveform of the load current and voltage is
shown below:
From to the load current is driven by the supply source and from to the load voltage is
negative and the current is maintained by the voltage induced in the inductance
The diode D bypasses the load current during the intervals of negative transformer voltage and this
prevents the output voltage from assuming a negative value.
The diode prevents the voltage across the load from reversing during the negative half cycle of
the supply voltage.
The load average voltage would be determined only by the positive half cycle wave of the
transformer secondary emf from to .
27
2
) 1 (
2 2
2
Cos
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
l
m
dc
m
dc
+ = + = =

Half wave rectification contains a significant amount of ripples. Therefore this is not suitable for speed
control of dc motors.
) 1 ( ); 1 ( ) (
2
2
Cos
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin V Vo
L
m
o
m
m
+ = + = =

2
1
2
1
2 2
)
2
2 sin
(
2
1
) (
1
+ =
m m rms
V t d t Sin V V
[ ]
2
1
)
2
2
(
2
1

Sin
R
V
R
V
I
L
m
L
rms
rms
+ = =
When terminal A
1
2
T1 and T2 are fired simultaneously and current
flows through T1 load and T2. In the reverse half cycle T3 and T4 are fired and the reverse voltage
applied across them commutates T1 and T2. Due to inductive load, T1 and T2 will conduct beyond
,even though the input voltage is already negative see the waveforms above.
Depending on the size of the inductance the conduction can be discontinuous or continuous as shown
above. If X
L
>>R then the load current will be continuous.
28
2
2

Cos Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
m m
dc
= =

Now
)
2
(
2
2
2
*
2
2

+ =
+
l
dc
dc
m
dc
R
V
I Sin Sin
V
V = + = )
2
(
2
2

If we assume that sufficient inductance is present in the dc armature circuit to ensure that the motor
current is continuous (present all the time).
l
m
l
dc
dc
m m
dc
R
Cos V
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
2 2
2
2
= = = =
+
2
1
2
2
t td Sin
V
V
m
rms
Depending on the value of the average output voltage could be either positive or negative and it
provides two-quadrant operation.
For =45
0
it can be noted that T1 and T2 conduct the motor current during the interval < t < (+)
and connects the motor to the supply v=Vs . At (+), T3 and T4 are fired. The supply voltage appears
immediately across thyristorsT1 and T2 as reverse bias voltage and turns them off. This is called Line
Commutation. The motor current , ia which was flowing from the supply through T1 and T2 is
29
transferred to T3 and T4. T3 and T4 conduct the motor current during the interval (+)<t < (2+)
and connects the motor to the supply (vo =-V)
l
m
l
dc
dc
m m
dc
R
Cos V
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
2 2
2
2
= = = =
+
dc
=Vo =IoRa +Ea
Where Io is the average motor current; Ea is the armature back emf, which is constant if the speed and
field current are constant
The variation of the motor terminal voltage Vo as a function of the angle based on the equation
Vdc. For firing angles in the range 0
o
< <90
0
, the average output is positive. Since the current can
flow in one direction in the load circuit because of the thyristors , the power VoIo is positive ;power is
flowing from the supply to the dc machine , and the dc machine operates as a motor. For firing angles
90
o
< <180
0
,the output voltage is negative and therefore the power VoIo is negative; that is power
flow is from the machine to the ac supply. This is known as inversion Operation of the converter, and
this mode of operation is used for the regenerative braking of the motor. Note that for inversion
operation, the polarity of the motor back emf Ea must be negative. It can be reversed by reversing the
field current if so that the dc machine behaves as dc generator.
Two full converters can be connected back to back as shown below . This arrangement is known as the
dualConverter connection. If one converter is used, it causes motor current to flow in one direction. If
the other converter is used, the motor current reverses and so does the speed
Dual Converter
Example .
A full wave fully controlled single phase bridge rectifier feeds a load resistance R and inductance L
from an AC source of Vrms voltage Vs.
30
a) show that the mean or average voltage value of the DC output voltage Vo is given by
Cos V V
s o
90 . 0 = .
If R=4,L500mH, =30
0
b) Calculate:
Solution

Cos V Cos
V
Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
s
s m m
dc
90 . 0
* 2 2 2
2
2
= = = =
+
b) (i) Xl=2fL=2**50*0.5H =157 This implies that the load current is going to be
continuous. Therefore
A i V Cos Cos V V
dc s dc
8 . 46
4
1 . 187
1 . 187 30 * 240 * 90 . 0 90 . 0 = = = = = .
The current is almost constant since the ripple is almost negligible because of high circuit
inductance. Thus this current is both the average and the rms value i.e io =irms =46.78A

(ii) The thyristor average current is
A
i
t d i I
o tha
4 . 23
2
78 . 46
) ( *
2 2
1
0
= = + = =

A
i
t d i I
o
o thrms
1 . 33 ) (
2 2
1
2
1
2 2
1
2
=
+ =

W R i P
o o
48 . 8753 4 * 78 . 46 *
2 2
= = = This is also the input power to the converter. The VA
drawn from the supply is given by :
8 . 0
2 . 11227
48 . 8753
2 . 11227 240 * 78 . 46 = = = = PF W V I
s s
A thyristor semiconverter that can be used for the speed control of a dc motor consists of thyristors
and diodes. See fig below:
31
Thyristors T1 and T2 are fired at and (2 + ), respectively. See the waveforms. The motor is
connected to the input supply for the period < t< through T1 and D2, and the load voltage is
the same as the input voltage. Beyond , Vo tends to reverse as the input voltage changes
polarity. As Vo tends to reverse , the diode Dfw (known as the free wheeling diode ) becomes
forward biased and starts to conduct. The motor current which was flowing from the supply
through T1, is transferred to Dfw, (i.e T1 commutates). The output terminals are shorted through
the freewheeling diode during the interval ( < t< + ) making Vo =0. At t= + , T2 is fired
and it take over the motor current ia from Dfw. The load current now flows through T2 and D1.At
t=2 , Dfw, becomes forward biased again and takes over the current from T2, and the process
continues. See the waveforms. Note that if D
fw
is not used, freewheeling action will take place
through T1 and D2 during the interval (2 < t<2 + ).
) 1 (
* 2
) ( ) * * 2 (
1
Cos
V
t d t Sin V Vo
+ =
=
Note; Vo is always positive and therefore Vo*Io is always positive that is power flow is from the
ac supply to the dc load. Semiconverters do not invert power. However they are cheaper than full
converters.
Waveforms
Example
A single phase full converter is used to control the speed of a 5hp, 110V, 1200rpm, separately
excited dc motor. The converter is connected to a single phase 120V,60Hz supply. The armature
resistance is Ra =0.4 and armature circuit inductance is La=5mH. The motor voltage constant K
=0.09V/rpm.
1. Rectifier(or motoring) operation. The dc machine operates as a motor runs at 1000rpm, and
carries an armature current of 30A. Assume that the motor current is ripple free.
32
2. Inverter Operation (Regenerating Action). Reversing the field excitation reverses the polarity of
the motor back emf Ea.
Solution
a) Ea =0.09*1000 =90V; Vo =Ea +IoRa =90+30 =102V,
0
2 . 19
120 * 2 2
102 = =
Cos
b) P =Io
2
*Ra + EaIo =VoIo =102*30 =3060W
c)The supply current has a square waveform with amplitude 30A (=Io). The rms supply current is
I=30A .
If the losses in the converter are neglected, the power from the supply is the same as the power to the
motor Ps =3060W
2. (a) At the time of polarity reversal the back emf is Ea =90V and from Vo =Ea +IoRa =-90+30*0.4
=-90+12 =-78V
Now
0
2 . 136 78 *
120 * 2 2
= = =
V Cos Vo
2
*0.4 =360W
For higher power applications, several kilowatts three phase circuits are preferable. The magnitude
of harmonic voltage is lower in three phase circuits than in single-phase circuits. This is due to
increasing number of pulses.
33
) 120 ( * * 2 ) 240 ( * * 2
) 120 ( * * 2
* * 2
0 0
0
+ = =
=
=
t Sin V t Sin V Vcn
t Sin V Vbn
t Sin V Van


0
0
, and T3 t =270
0
that is at the crossing
points of the phase voltages. Firing at these instants will also result in maximum output voltage.
The reference for the firing angle is therefore the crossing point of the phase voltages. The firing
of the thyristors can be delayed from these crossing points. In other words the firing angle is
measured from the crossing points of the phase voltages. Recall that in a single-phase converter,
the firing angle was measured from the zero crossing of the input supply voltage.
0
+ , and the output voltage is Vo=Van.
The output voltage io =Vo/R, and becomes zero at t =. Thyristor T1 turns off at this instant
through natural commutation. Thyristor T2 is fired att =150
0
+ , making Vo= Vbn. T2 turns off
at t =300
0
.T3 is fired at
t =270
0
+ . Making Vo =Vcn.
Example
The load in the fig above now consists of a resistance and a very large inductance. The inductance
is so large that the output current io can be assumed to be continuous and ripple- free. For =60
0
.
34
Solution
b) The average voltage Vdc is given by the following relationship:
V Cos V V V V
Cos
V
t td Sin V t td Sin V V
dc m p
m
m m dc
2 . 70 ) 60 ( *
2
120 * 2 * 3 3
120 * 2 120
*
2
3 3
*
2
3
*
2
3
0
120 30
30
6
5
6
= = = =
= = =

+ +
+
+
+

This consists of six thyristor switches as shown in figure below and this is the most commonly
used controlled rectifier circuit in industrial applications up to 120kW.
35
Thyristors T1 ,T3 and T5 are fired during the positive half cycle of the voltages of the phases to
which they are connected, and thyristors T2,T4,T6 are fired during the negative cycle of the phase
voltages. The references for the firing angles are the crossing points of the phase voltages. See
waveforms below:
The times at which the thyristors fire are marked in the figure above for =30
0
.
Assuming that the output current io ( i.e the dc motor current ) is continuous and ripple free as
shown above.
At t= 30
0
+ =/6+ T1 turns ON. Prior to this T6 was ON. during interval (/6+
< ) t < (/6+ +/3), T1 and T6 conduct the output current and the motor terminals
are connected to phase A and B making the output voltage vo =Van Vbn. The output
voltage vo is the distance between the envelopes of the phase voltages Van and Vbn as
shown by the arrows in the waveforms above.Note Van is positive and Vbn is negative
hence Van Vbn becomes Van +Vab. Under phase A there is T1 and T4; while under
36
B there is T3 and T6 and under C there is T5 and T2. this can be noted also on each
compltete cycle for each phase
At t = (/6+ +/3), T2 is fired and immediately voltage Vcb appears T6, which
reverse-biases it and turns it off (line commutation. The current from T6 is transferred to
S2. The motor terminals are connected to phase A through T1 and phase C through T2,
making Vo =Vac. This process repeats after every 60
0
whenever a thyristor is fired. Note
that the thyristors are numbered in a sequence in which they are fired.
0
in a cycle. The thyristor current iT1 is shown in the
graph. The line current such as iA, is a quasi square wave having a pulse width of 120
0
as
shown above.
The conduction pattern or firing sequence for the above circuit is
Remember for a three phase star connected system I
line
=I
phase
and V
line
=3*V
phase
and I
neutral
=I
R
+I
Y
+I
B
.
Remember for a three phase Delta connected system I
line
=3*I
phase
and V
line
=V
phase
.
The average value of the output voltage is: T1T6; T1T2; T2T3; T3T4; T4T5; T5T6; T6T1etc.
Cos
V
Cos V t d Vbn Van V
m
s o
3 3 6 3
) ( * ) (
2
6
3 6
6
= = =
+ +
+
The average output voltage varies with the firing angle , and this variation is shown in fig
below:
For varying in the range 0 < < 90
0
, Vo is positive and power flow is from the ac supply to
the DC motor. For 90
0
< < 180
0
,Vo is negative and the converter operates in the
inversion mode. The power can be transferred from the dc motor to the ac supply a process
known as regeneration.
37
The 3-phase semiconverter consists of three thyristors and three diodes as shown in fig
below:
Voltages and current waveforms are shown in fig below for a firing angle of =90
0
. The
instants of firing a thyristor and the duration of conduction of the diodes are shown in the
figure below showing the waveforms.
We will assume that the output current is continuous and ripple free. At t =/6+ , T1
turns ON and T1 and D3 conduct the output current io, making Vo=Vac. At t= 210
0
,Vo is
zero, and from this instant onwards Vo tends to be negative. The diode D1 will become
forward biased (and start conducting). The output current io will freewheel through T1 and
D1, making Vo =0.
When T2 is triggered on, the output current io will conduct through T2 and and D1 making Vo
=Vba.
The process repeats every 120
0
whenever a thyristor is fired.
Note that the line current iA starts at t =/6+ and terminates at t= 210
0
.
38
) 1 (
2
3 3
* ) 120 (
2
3
2
3
0
6
6
6
6
Cos
V
t d t Sin V t Sin V t d Vac V
m
m m o
+ = + = =

+
+
+
+
Note that the output voltage cannot reverse. Hence this converter does not operate in the inversion
mode.
Dual Coverters
Two full converters can be connected back to back to form a dual converter just as in the single-phase
situation and both the voltage Vo and current Io can reverse in a dual converter.
Example
A 3phase full converter is used to control the speed of a 100hp, 600V,1800rpm, separately excited
motor. The converter is operated from a star connected 3phase, 480V, 60Hz supply. The motor
parameters are Ra =0.1, La =5mH ,K =0.3V/rpm (Ea=Kn). The rated armature current is 130A
1. The rectifier (or motoring) operation:- The machine operates as a motor, draws rated current,
and runs at 1500rpm. Assume that the motor current is ripple free
b) Determine the supply power factor
2. Inverter operation :- The dc machine is operated in the regenerative braking mode. At
1000rpm and rated motor current
b) Determine the power fed back to the supply and the supply power factor
Solution
a) Phase voltage is
V R I E V V E V V
a o a o a p
463 1 . 0 * 130 450 450 1500 * 3 . 0 277
3
480
= + = + = = = = =
but we know :
0
4 . 44 *
3 * 277 * 2 3
463 463
3 3
= = = =
Cos V Cos
V
V
m
o
b) Since the ripple in the motor current is neglected, the supply current iA is a square wave of
magnitude 130A and width 120
0
. The rms value of the supply current is
A t d i i
o rms
1 . 106 130 *
3
2
3
2
* 130 *
1 1
2
1
2
2
1
3
2
0
2
= =
The supply voltage amperes are S =3Via =3*277*106.1 =88169.1VA

Assuming no losses in the converter, the power from the supply Ps is the same as the power
input to the motor. Hence
Ps =Vo*Io =463*130 =60190W
Therefore the supply power factor is PF =Ps/S =60190/88169.1 =0.68
2. (a) Ea =0.3*1000 = 300V
For inversion the polarity of Ea is reversed
Vo =Ea +IoRa
=-300 +130*0.1
= -287V
0
3 . 116 *
3 * 277 * 2 3
287 287
3 3
= = = =
Cos V Cos
V
V
m
o

b) Power from the DC machine (operating as a generator): Pdc =300*130 =39000W
Power lost in Ra: Pr =130
2
* 0.1 =1690W
39
Power to the source: Ps =39000 1690 =37310 W
Supply Volt amperes S = 88169.1V and Supply power factor =PF =37310/88169.1 =0.423
Assignment 2
Question 1
A three phase half wave converter in fig below is operated from a three phase Y connected
415V, 50Hz supply and the load resistance is R =10 . If it is required to obtain an average
output voltage of 50% of the maximum possible output voltage. Calculate:
Question 2
A three phase full wave converter is operated from a three phase Y connected 415V, 50Hz
supply and the load is highly inductive with resistance R =10 . If this converter is required to
obtain an average output voltage of 50% of the maximum possible output voltage. Sketch the
circuit diagram. [2]
Calculate:
Question 3
A full wave fully controlled single-phase bridge rectifier feeds a load resistance and inductance
L from an AC source of rms voltage Vs. A freewheeling diode is fitted across the load.
a) Show that the output voltage is given by
2
) 1 ( 9 . 0 Cos V
V
s
o
+
= [4]
Given that R =4 , L=500mH, =30 ,Vs =240V and the supply frequency to be 50Hz,
Calculate:
b) The average and rms output currents [4]
c) The thyristor average and rms currents [4]
d) The diode average and rms currents [4]
e) The power factor of the ac input to the rectifier [4]
40
AC Voltage Controllers
AC voltage controllers
These convert a fixed voltage ac supply into a variable voltage ac supply. They can be used to control
the speed of induction motors.
Single phase AC Voltage Controllers
The waveforms are as shown below:
T1 is fired at and T2 is fired at +. If T1 is fire the current builds up at and decays to zero at .
When T2 turns on at + a negative current flows in the load.
During conduction interval say for T1:
t VSin
dt
di
L i R V
o o
* 2 * = + =
The load current is:

t
transient e steadystat o
Ae t Sin
Z
V
i i i
+ = + = ) (
2
..1
where :
R
L
R
L
L R Z = = + =

; tan ; ) (
1 2 2
At t =, io =0 then:
41

) (
) (
2
L
R
e Sin
Z
V
A = ..2
From equations 1 and 2
] ) ( ) ( [
2 ) )( ( t
L
R
o
e Sin t Sin
Z
V
i

= .3
Letting = from 3:
) (
2
= t Sin
Z
V
i
o
4
From equation 4, the load current io is sinusoidal, which indicates that if the firing angle is the same as
the impedance angle i.e., =, the load current becomes purely sinusoidal.
0
and the full supply appears across the load. Fig below shows the
waveforms of load current for two different firing angles.
For > , io is non-sinusoidal, and for =, io is sinusoidal. Even for < will be sinusoidal.
To determine , when the current io falls to zero and T1 is turned off, can be found from the condition
i
o
(t=)=0 and this gives a relation :
) )( (
) ( ) (

=
L
R
e Sin Sin
The angle , which is also known as the extinction angle, can be determined from this equation by way
of an iterative method of solution. Once is known then the conduction angle of T1 can then be
determined from = - .
2
1
2
1
2 2
0
2
2
2
2 1
) ( * 2
2
2
+ =
Sin Sin
V t d t Sin V V Where V is the
rms supply voltage.
The rms thyristor current is obtained from:
2
1
2
0
) (
2
1
t d i I
rth
and the rms output current can then be found by combining the rms current
of each thyristor as ( )
rth rth rth
I I I I * 2
2
1
2 2
0
= + = and the average thyristor current can be
determined from
) (
2
1
0
t d i I
a
Example
A single-phase full wave controller supplies an RL load. The input rms voltage is V =120V, 60Hz. The
load is such that L=6.5mH and R=2.5. The delay angle of thyristors are equal:1=2=/2. Determine
a) the conduction angle of thyristor T1,;
42
b) the rms output voltage Vo,
c) the rms thyristor current Irth;
d) the rms output current Io;
e) the average current of a thyristor Ia; and
f) the input power factor.
Solution:
R=2.5, L=6.5mH, f=60Hz, =2*60 =377rad/s, V=120V, =/2. and
=tan
-1
(L/R)=44.43
0
.
a) an iteration solution yields 220.35
0
hence the conduction angle = =220.35
0
-
90
0
=130.43
0
b) Vo =68.09V
c) Integrating from to gives Irth =15.07A
d) Io =21.3A
e) Ia=8.23A
f) Output power =21.3
2
2.5=1134.2W and the input VA is VA =120*21.3=2556W Therefore PF
=1134.2/2556 =0.444lag

Three Phase AC voltage Controllers
For higher power loads such as the induction motors driving fans, or pumps, three phase controllers are
used. Figure below shows the two types of three phase ac voltage controllers.
In one circuit, the thyristors switches are in the lines and the load can be connected either in Star or
Delta. While in the other circuit the thyristors are connected in series with the phase loads to form a
delta connection
The firing sequence for the Y connected will be T1;T2;T3;T4;T5;T6 or see the waveforms below:
43
The operation of the delta-connected controller can be studied on a per phase basis because each phase
is connected across a known supply voltage.
Example:
A three phase ac voltage controller is used to start and control the speed of a 3 phase 100Hp ,460V,
four pole induction motor driving a centrifugal pump. At full load output the power factor of the
motor is 0.85 and the efficiency is 80%. The motor current is sinusoidal. The controller and the motor
are connected in delta as shown above.
a) determine the rms current rating of the thyristors
b) determine the peak voltage rating of the thyristor
c) determine the control range of the firing angle
Solution
a) output power is given S PF Po * * =
S=100*0.746/0.8*0.85 =109.71kVA
We know VA=3Vph*Iph Iph =109.71kVA/3*460 =79.5A (remember V
ph
=V
L
for a delta connected
load and
ph L
I I 3 = )
thyristor rms current =79.5/(2)
1/2
= 56.22A
b) Peak voltage across the thyristor =(2)
1/2
*460=650.4V
c) the control range of the firing angle is determined from the fact that :

0 1
8 . 31 85 . 0 = = =

Cos Cos PF the control range is 31.8
0
<
<180
0
.
Thyristor Commutation
A thyristor needs a commutation circuit whenever a dc source supplies power to
be modulated. For example when a thyristor is being used on inverters and
Choppers once ON it will remain being on until a positive voltage is applied on its
cathode that is when it can be turned off and this is termed forced commutation.
There is natural commutation which is to do with the switching off of the thyristor
by virtue of current falling below its holding current and this happens naturally as
in the case of ac supply. See fig below:
44
At 90 the thyristor switches off naturally and awaits another firing signal for the
next positive pulse
a) Parallel Capacitor turn off Circuit
Vs and load Rl comprise the main circuit. T1 modulates the power in the load.
C,R and T2 are assumed to be off . If T1 is switched on, so that there is load
current i at the same time the capacitor charges up to +Vs on plate Y through R,
C and T1. Plate X of capacitor is virtually at ground potential because T1 is in
the zero impedance state. This sets the stage for commutation.
When it is desired to interrupt the load current, T2 is turned ON. This puts the
capacitor C in parallel with T1 and the reverse voltage sitting across C reverse
biases T1. If T1 is reverse biased long enough, it will turn off. Capacitor C
discharges and charges, this time becoming positive at X through Rl, C and T2.
At some particular time T1 is turned ON again, now the voltage across C reverse
45
biases T2 to turn it off. The capacitor C becomes positively charged at plate Y so
that the cycle can be repeated. By controlling the times that T1 and T2 are
allowed to conduct the average power in the load can be adjusted. To be able to
do this the value of the capacitance must be determined.
During Turn Off:
C R
t
L
L
e
R
Vs
t i
=
2
) ( current through the circuit. 2Vs comes from the supply and the
capacitor.
The voltage across the thyristor T1 is : ) 2 1 (
1
C R
t
s L s T
L
e V iR V V
= =
The time t1 for the voltage V
T1
to rise to zero is :
) 2 1 (
1
C R
t
s L s T
L
e V iR V V
= = = 0 t1 =0.69R
L
C and this time must be larger
than the turn off time of the thyristor T1.
Turn off time of the device is :
L
off
L off
R
t
C C R t
69 . 0
69 . 0
If T1 and T2 have the same turn off times and if R RL then the above value of C
will allow satisfactory commutation.
If the capacitor is to charge fully after each switching action, it will take at least 5
(5R
L
C) after T2 has been triggered for this to be accomplished.
) ( 5
1 1
) ( 5 ) 5 5 (
L
L L
R R T
C R R RC C R T
+
= + = +
Example
Consider a case of parallel capacitance turn off as shown above .The load
resistance R
L
=5 and the supply voltage is Vs =120V. Calculate the minimum
value of the capacitor C if the manufacturers specified turn off time for the
thyristor is 15s. What is a suitable value of the resistor R, if the thyristor T1 is
triggered on every millisecond?
Solution
C =15s /0.69Rl =4.3F a reasonable value of C could be 5F.
The minimum time of cycle of operation is T =5(R
L
C +RC).
The value of R provides the only adjustments of this time since other parameters
are fixed.
Now 5(R
L
C +RC)=1*10
-3
R =41.5
The value of R can be less than 41.5 and this would result in the capacitor
charging up faster while T1 is conducting.
b). Auxiliary Resonant Commutation Circuit
46
This circuit is popular and is used in many inverter and chopper circuits see the
circuit diagram first:
T2 is triggered first to order to charge up the capacitor C in the polarity shown.
As soon as the capacitor C is charged T2 is commutated owing to lack of current.
When T1 is triggered current flows in two paths, the load current flows in the in
Rl and the commutating current through C, T1, L and D. The charge on the
capacitor is reversed and is held with the hold off diode D. At any desired time T2
may be triggered which then places C across T1 thus turning off T1. The
waveforms are shown below.
At to T1 is assumed to be conducting
At t4 T1 is switched on and the capacitor will begin to discharge via T1, diode D
and the inductance L. During the first period of this oscillatory discharge, until
time t5 a reverse voltage is placed across the commutating thyristor T2. After one
47
half cycle of the oscillation, at time t6, the current through the diode attempts to
reverse and the diode ceases to conduct and the capacitor is charged in the
opposite direction of the figure ready for the next commutation cycle. If say we
want to commutate the T1 then T2 is fired and this places Vc across T1
commutating T1.
The frequency of Oscillation for this circuit is determined by the values of
capacitance and the inductor according to the relationship:
) (
1
LC
=
c) Resonant turn off
There is a series resonant and parallel resonant commutation circuit
Series Resonant Circuit
If an LC network is included as part of the load circuit, the current reversing
properties of a tuned LC will force the device to commutate.
When T1 is triggered, a current flows through the LC circuit charging the
capacitor towards the supply voltage.
After some time , the magnitude of the current reverses and tries to flow through
T1 in opposite direction owing to the resonating effect of Land C. For proper
commutation the LCR circuit must be under-damped to allow current oscillation
which will turn off the thyristor at first current zero. The capacitor will then
discharge through the load . The on time of the thyristor is determined by the
frequency of the oscillatory circuit (LC)
) ( 2
) ( 2
1
2
) (
1
LC T
LC
f f
LC
= = = =
The current and voltage waveforms are shown below:
48
Parallel Resonant Commutation Circuit
When the circuit is switched on and in the absence of gate trigger pulse, the
capacitor C is charged up in the polarity shown.
When T1 is triggered , current flows through load resistance Rl and a pulse
current through the resonating LC circuit. The capacitor is discharged from the
initial polarity and charges it in the reverse direction. The resonant circuit
current then reverses and tries to flow through T1 in opposite direction to the load
current and during this process T1 is turned off.
The thyristor ON period is again a function of the frequency of the oscillation of
the LC circuit, while the off period must be sufficient to allow the capacitor to be
adequately charged.
49
Commutation is accomplished if the resonant current ic reaches a value greater
than the load current il for a time greater than toff turn off time of the thyristor.
The circuit equation for the resonant circuit is:
= = + = + = + ) ( * ) ( 0 ) ( ]
1
[ 0 ) ( *
1
0
1
2
2
2
t Sin
L
C
V t i s I
C
L S t i
C
dt
di
L idt
C
dt
di
L
s

The capacitor voltage at any given time is given my the following relationship:
t Cos V V
s c
=
By design the peak discharge current is:
L
C
V
s
And this should considerably in excess of the load current. Hence:
C
L
R
L
C
R
L
C
V i i
R
V
l
l
s c
L
s
= = = = =
2
max
1
When the thyristor turns off, capacitor has negative charge. The capacitor then
charges to a positive value through the load R, L and C forming a damped
resonant circuit.
Example :
A parallel resonant turn off thyristor chopper consisting of an LC circuit in
parallel with an SCR supplies an inductive load current of 20A from a DC source
of 400V. Choose suitable values for L and C for turn off so that the trigger pulses
have a minimum period of 0.1msec.
Solution:
Peak current due to oscillatory circuit is Ipeak =
L
C
V
s
20A
400
1
20
1
= =
L
C
L
C
Minimum period (highest chopper frequency) corresponds to half (1/2) periodic
time of the oscillatory current that is:
mH L F C LC LC 636 . 0 ; 10 * 5 . 1 10 * 013 . 1 10 * 1 . 0
6 9 3
= = =

Remember capacitor voltage leads current by 90 deg see the current response
graph below:
50
The maximum time ton that the thyristor conducts is from the time it is turned
on to the time that the capacitor current reaches its maximum value in the
reverse direction. In terms of the period T this time is 3/4T hence in limit this is
:
LC t
on

4
3
= .
DC DC CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
A chopper directly converts a fixed voltage dc supply to a variable voltage dc supply. The chopper
can be used to control the speed of a DC motor.
Applications
-Switched mode power supply (SMPS), DC motor Control, Battery chargers
Step Down Chopper (Buck Converter)
A schematic diagram of a step down chopper with a motor load is shown in fig below.
51
The chopper can be a conventional thyristor (SCR), a GTO thyristor, a power transistor, or a MOSFET.
When the chopper is turned ON say at t=0, the supply is connected to the supply and Vo =V. The load
current io builds up. When the chopper/switch is turned off at t=ton, the load current freewheels
through Dfw and Vo =0.
At t=T the switch is turned on again and the cycle repeats. The waveforms of the load voltage and load
current are shown in fig above. It is assumed that the current is continuous, while the voltage is
chopped.
The average value of the output voltage is V V
T
ton
V *
0
= =
Where ton is the on time of the chopper
T is the chopping period
=the duty ratio of the chopper
The output voltage can be controlled in the range 0< Vo < V .
If the switch is a GTO thyristor, a positive gate pulse will turn it on and a negative gate pulse will turn
it off. If the switch is a transistor, the base current will control the on and off period of the switch. If the
switch is an SCR, a commutation circuit is required to turn it off. There are many forms of
commutation circuits that can be used to force commutate a thyristor.
The power supplied to the motor is
0 0
* * i V i V P
o o
= = .
If we assume a loss less dc-dc converter P
i
=
0 0
* * i V i V P
o o
= =
The average value of the input current is
0 0
* * * i I i V I V
s s
= =
The equivalent input resistance of the dc-dc converter drive seen by the source is:
1
*
0
i
V
I
V
R
s
eq
= = . By varying the duty cycle, the power flow to the motor and the speed can be
controlled.
Example
52
A dc converter as shown above from a 600V dc source powers a dc separately excited motor. The
armature resistance is Ra =0.05. The back emf constant of the motor is k
v
= 1.527V/Arads
-1
.The
average armature current is i
o
=250A. The field current is i
f
=2.5A. The armature current is
continuous and has negligible ripple. If the duty cycle of the dc-dc converter is 60% determine:
a) the input power from the source,
b) the equivalent input resistance of the dc-dc converter drive,
c) the motor speed , and
d) the developed torque
Solution
a) the input power from the source is
0 0
* * i V i V P
o o
= = =0.6*600*250 =90kW
b) the input resistance of the dc-dc chopper =
1
*
0
i
V
I
V
R
s
eq
= = =600/(250*0.6)=4
c) the motor speed is determined from * *
f v g
I k E = but
a a a a o
R i V E E R i V
0 0 0
* = + = but V V
T
ton
V *
0
= = =0.6*600 =360V E
a
=360 250*0.05 =347.5V 347.5
= rpm rps I k E
f v a
27 . 869 03 . 91
5 . 2 * 527 . 1
5 . 347
* * = = = =
d) The developed torque is
a f v
I I k T * * = =1.527*250*2.5 =954.4NM
Step Up Chopper (Boost Converter)
A change in chopper configuration as shown in fig below provides higher load voltages.
When the chopper is ON, the inductor is connected to the supply V and the energy from the supply is
stored in it. When the chopper is off, the inductor current is forced to flow through the diode and the
load.
The induced voltage Vl across the inductor is negative. The inductor voltage adds to the source voltage
to force the inductor current into the load. Thus the stored energy in the inductor is released to the load.
If the ripple in the source current is neglected, then during the time the chopper is ON (ton) the energy
input to the inductor from the source is:
on
VIt Ei =
During the time the chopper is off (toff), the energy released by the inductor to the load is:
off o
It V V Eo ) ( =
For a loss less system in the stead state, the two energies will be the same hence:

=
=
+
= =
1
* * * ) (
V
V
T T
T
V
t T
T
V
t
t t
V It V V VIt
on off
off on
o off o on
Thus for a variation of in the range 0< <1, the voltage Vo varies in the range 0< Vo < .
53
Two Quadrant Chopper
A combination of step up and step down configurations can form a two-quadrant chopper. See figure
below:
If chopper C1 and diode D1 are operated the system operates as a step down chopper and the dc
machine operates as a motor. The output voltage is either V (when C1 is on) or zero (when C1 is off
and D1 conducts).
The average output voltage is positive and the output current io flows as shown in the circuit.
The chopper therefore operates in the first quadrant,
If , however the chopper C2 and the diode D2 are operated , the system operates as a step up
chopper with Ea as a source and the DC machine operates in a regenerative braking mode.
The output is either zero (when C2 is ON) or V (when C2 is Off and D2 conducting).
The average output voltage is positive, but the output current now flows in the negative
direction. The chopper then operates in the fourth quadrant.
Note
The armature of the separately excited motor is rotating due to inertia of the motor and the load; and in
case of transportation system, the kinetic energy of the vehicle or train would rotate the armature shaft.
Then if the transistor or chopper is switched on, the armature current rises due to the short-circuiting of
the motor terminals. If the dc dc converter (C2) is turned off, diode D2 would be turned on and the
energy stored in the armature circuit inductance would be transferred to the supply provided the supply
is receptive. A single chopper can be used for both powering and regenerative breaking. In regenerative
breaking C1 and D1 are rearranged from powering mode to regenerative braking. That is D1 and C1
are interchanged.
Example
The two-quadrant chopper shown in fig above is used to control the speed of the dc motor and also for
regenerative braking of the motor. The motor constant is K =0.1V/rpm (Ea=Kn). The chopping
frequency is fc =250Hz and the motor armature resistance is Ra =0,2. The inductance La is
sufficiently large and the motor current i
o
can be assumed to be ripple free. The supply voltage is
120V.
a) Chopper C1 and diode D1 are operated to control the speed of the motor. At n=400rpm and
io=100A (ripple free),
o
, i
o
and i
s
on
of the chopper
iii) Determine the power developed by the motor, power absorbed by Ra, and power
from the source
b) In the two-quadrant chopper C2 and diode D2 are operated for regenerative breaking of the
motor. At n=350rpm and i
o
= -100A (ripple free),
o
, i
o
and i
s
on
of the chopper
iii) Determine the power developed by the motor, power absorbed by Ra, and power
to the source
54
Solution
a) ( i)
ii)
a a a
R I E V + =
0
=0.1*400 +100*0.2 =60V
2
120 * * 60
T
t
T
t
V
T
t
on
on on
= = = but T =1/250 =0.004seconds =4ms hence t
on
=2msec
iii) P
motor
=Ea*Io =0.1*400*100 =4000W
P
R
=(io)
2
*Ra =100
2
*0.2 =2000W
P
s
=V*(is)avg =120*100*2/4 =6000W
b) the waveforms are shown below
i)
ii)
a a a
R I E V + =
0
=0.1*350 +(-100*0.2) =15V
sec 5 . 3 4 *
8
7
120 * * 15 m t
T
t T
V
T
t T
on
on on
= =
=
iii) P
motor
=Ea*Io =0.1*350*(-100) = -3500W
P
R
=(io)
2
*Ra =100
2
*0.2 =2000W
P
s
=V*(i
s
) avg =120*(-100*1/8) =-1500W
55
The average voltage across the chopper is given for the following circuit used in regenerative brake
control:
) 1 ( ) (
1

= = =
V T T
T
V
dt V
T
V
s
T
T
ch
If Ia is the armature current, the regenerated power is ) 1 ( = = V I V I Pg
a ch a
The voltage generated by the motor acting as a generator is:
a a a m ch f v g
I R V I R V I k E + = + = = ) 1 (
Where k
v
is the machine constant and is the machine speed in rads/sec. R
a
is the total armature circuit
resistance.
Therefore the equivalent load resistance of the motor acting as a generator is:
a
a a
g
eq
R
I
V
I
E
R +
= =
) 1 (
By varying the duty cycle , the equivalent load resistance seen by the motor can be varied from Ra to
(V/Ia +Ra) and the regenerative power can be controlled.
The conditions for the permissible potentials and polarity of two voltages are:
, 0
min min
f v
a a
a a f v a a a a
I k
I R
I R I k E V R I E = = = and >or=
min
. The
maximum braking speed of a motor can be determined from
max max max
; 0 + = =
f v
a a
f v
a a f v a a a
I k
I R
I k
V
I R I k V V R I E .
The regenerative braking would be effective only if the motor speed is between these two speed limits
(eg
min
<<
max
). At any speed less than
min
an alternate braking arrangement would be required.
Which could be Rheostatic brake control or combined Regenerative and Rheostatic brake control
Example
A dc-dc converter is used in regenerative braking of a dc series motor. The DC supply is 600V. The
armature resistance is R
a
=0.02 and the field resistance is R
f
= 0.03. The back emf constant is
kv=15.27mv/A rads
-1
.The average armature current is maintained constant at Ia =250A.The armature
current is continuous and has negligible ripple. If the duty cycle of the dc- dc converter is 60%,
determine:
a) the average voltage across the dc-dc converter Vch
b) the power regenerated to the dc supply Pg
c) The equivalent load resistance of the motor acting as a generator Req
d) The minimum permissible braking speed
min
,
e) The maximum permissible braking speed
max
.
f) The motor speed
56
Solution
a) ) 1 ( = V V
ch
= (1-0.6)*600 = 240V
b) Pg =Ia*Vch =250*240 =60kW
c) Req =V/Is = Ea/Ia =(Vch + IaRm) where Rm =0.02+0.03 =0.05 Req
=(240+250*0.05)/250 =1.01.
d) , 0
min min
f v
a a
a a f v a a a a
I k
I R
I R I k E V R I E = = =
min
=0.05*250/(15.27mV*250)=3.274rad/s =31.26rpm
e)
max max max
; 0 + = =
f v
a a
f v
a a f v a a a
I k
I R
I k
V
I R I k V V R I E
max
.=600/(0.01527*250) +0.05/0.01527 =160.445rad/s =15232.14rpm
f)
a a a m ch f v g
I R V I R V I k E + = + = = ) 1 ( Eg =Vch +IaRa =240 +250*0.05
=252.5V =252.5/(15.27mV*250)=66.14rad/s =631.6rpm
Inverters
These are static circuits that convert power from a dc source to ac power at a specified output voltage
and frequency. Inverters are used in many industrial applications.
For example:
a) Variable speed ac motor drives
b) Induction heating
c) Aircraft power supplies
d) Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) for computers.
There are two types of inverters namely:
i) Voltage source inverters (VSI)
ii) Current Source Inverter (CSI)
Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
In the VSI the input is a dc voltage supply, e.g., battery, fuel cell, soar cell and other dc sources such as
output of controlled rectifier.
Both Single phase and three phase voltage sources are used in industry.
Figures illustrating Inverter Configurations
The switching devices can be a conventional thyristor(with its commutation circuit), a GTO thyristor,
or a power transistor.
57
Single Phase VSI- Principle of operation
The inverter consists of two choppers. When Q1 is turned on for a time T/2, the instantaneous voltage
across the load is V/2.
If only Q2 is turned on for a time T/2, -V/2 appears across the load.
The logic circuit should be designed such that Q1 and Q2 are not turned on at the same time. Third and
fourth graphs are for resistive and inductive loads.
Note that prior to turning on a switch, the other one must be turned off . Otherwise both switches will
conduct and short circuit the DC supply. If the load is inductive, that is a lagging power factor, the
output current io also lags the output voltage Vo as shown in the fig above.
The load current can not change immediately with the output voltage. If Q1 is switched off at T/2, the
load current will continue to flow through D2, load and the lower half of the dc source until the current
falls to zero.
Similarly when Q2 is turned off at t=T, the load current flows, through D1, load and upper half of the
DC source. When the diodes D1 and D2, conduct, energy is fed back to the dc source and these diodes
are known as feedback diodes.
R
V
dt
R
V
T
P
V
dt
V
T
V
T
T
o
orms
4 4
2
2
4
2 2
2 /
0
2
2
1
2
0
2

= = =
=
E.g
A center tapped source inverter as shown above modulates power from a 200V source to a purely
resistive load whose value is R=2.If the thyristors have a duty cycle of 0.4=m. Sketch V
T1
,V
T2
, I
L
,
I
T1
, and determine:
a) the average power absorbed by the load,
b) the voltage and current ratings of the switches
Solution
a) Pav =16kW
b) Current rating =100A
58
Waveforms
Single Phase Bridge Inverter
Q1 ,Q2 ,Q3, Q4, are four choppers. Where Q1 and Q2 are turned on simultaneously, the input voltage
Vs appears across the load while Q3 and Q4, the voltage across the load is reversed and is Vs.
If m=duty cycle= Ton/T then the rms voltage is :
Vrms =Vs(2m)
The average power absorbed by the load is P =2mV
2
s/R
Example
The dc source voltage is Vs =600V and the load has a resistance of R=20 if the inverter is to operate
at 500Hz with an rms load voltage of 500V. Find:
a) the average power absorbed by the load
b) the average source current
c) the average current in each thyristor
d) the thyristor on time each period
Solution:
a) 12.5kW
b) 20.83A =Isav
c) Ithav =20.83/2=10.42A
d) Ton =0.694x 10
-3
s

Solution
And ) 1 (
2
); 1 (
2
) (
2
1
Cos
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin V Vo
L
m
o
m
m
+ = + = =
Power =P =
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
) 1 ( 5 . 22 ) 1 (
100 * 4
300
) 1 (
4

Cos Cos Cos

R
V
L
m
+ = + = +
8857 . 0 556 . 3 1 ) 1 ( 556 . 3 ) 1 ( 5 . 22 80
2 2
= = + + = + = Cos Cos Cos Cos Th
erefore =27.66
0
.At a power of 25W the firing angle is 87,3
0
.
Most practical Loads have resistance and inductance L, e.g. the armature of a dc motor load has resistance
(R) and inductance (L). When a thyristor is fired at the inductance in the load forces the current to lag
the voltage and decays to zero at . The waveform of the load current and voltage is shown below:
From to the load current is driven by the supply source and from to the load voltage is negative
and the current is maintained by the voltage induced in the inductance
The diode D bypasses the load current during the intervals of negative transformer voltage and this
prevents the output voltage from assuming a negative value.
The diode prevents the voltage across the load from reversing during the negative half cycle of the
supply voltage.
The load average voltage would be determined only by the positive half cycle wave of the
transformer secondary emf from to .
2
) 1 (
2 2
2
Cos
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
l
m
dc
m
dc
+ = + = =

Half wave rectification contains a significant amount of ripples. Therefore this is not suitable for speed
control of dc motors.
) 1 ( ); 1 ( ) (
2
2
Cos
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin V Vo
L
m
o
m
m
+ = + = =

2
1
2
1
2 2
)
2
2 sin
(
2
1
) (
1
+ =
m m rms
V t d t Sin V V
[ ]
2
1
)
2
2
(
2
1

Sin
R
V
R
V
I
L
m
L
rms
rms
+ = =
When terminal A
1
2
T1 and T2 are fired simultaneously and current flows
through T1 load and T2. In the reverse half cycle T3 and T4 are fired and the reverse voltage applied across
them commutates T1 and T2. Due to inductive load, T1 and T2 will conduct beyond ,even though the
input voltage is already negative see the waveforms above.
Depending on the size of the inductance the conduction can be discontinuous or continuous as shown
above. If X
L
>>R then the load current will be continuous.
2
2

Cos Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
m m
dc
= =

Now
)
2
(
2
2
2
*
2
2

+ =
+
l
dc
dc
m
dc
R
V
I Sin Sin
V
V = + = )
2
(
2
2

If we assume that sufficient inductance is present in the dc armature circuit to ensure that the motor current
is continuous (present all the time).
l
m
l
dc
dc
m m
dc
R
Cos V
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
2 2
2
2
= = = =
+
2
1
2
2
t td Sin
V
V
m
rms
Depending on the value of the average output voltage could be either positive or negative and it provides
two-quadrant operation.
For =45
0
it can be noted that T1 and T2 conduct the motor current during the interval < t < (+) and
connects the motor to the supply v=Vs . At (+), T3 and T4 are fired. The supply voltage appears
immediately across thyristorsT1 and T2 as reverse bias voltage and turns them off. This is called Line
Commutation. The motor current , ia which was flowing from the supply through T1 and T2 is transferred
to T3 and T4. T3 and T4 conduct the motor current during the interval (+)<t < (2+) and connects the
motor to the supply (vo =-V)
l
m
l
dc
dc
m m
dc
R
Cos V
R
V
I Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
2 2
2
2
= = = =
+
dc
=Vo =IoRa +Ea
Where Io is the average motor current; Ea is the armature back emf, which is constant if the speed and
field current are constant
The variation of the motor terminal voltage Vo as a function of the angle based on the equation Vdc.
For firing angles in the range 0
o
< <90
0
, the average output is positive. Since the current can flow in one
direction in the load circuit because of the thyristors , the power VoIo is positive ;power is flowing from the
supply to the dc machine , and the dc machine operates as a motor. For firing angles 90
o
< <180
0
,the
output voltage is negative and therefore the power VoIo is negative; that is power flow is from the machine
to the ac supply. This is known as inversion Operation of the converter, and this mode of operation is used
for the regenerative braking of the motor. Note that for inversion operation, the polarity of the motor back
emf Ea must be negative. It can be reversed by reversing the field current if so that the dc machine behaves
as dc generator.
Two full converters can be connected back to back as shown below . This arrangement is known as the
dualConverter connection. If one converter is used, it causes motor current to flow in one direction. If the
other converter is used, the motor current reverses and so does the speed
Dual Converter
Example .
A full wave fully controlled single phase bridge rectifier feeds a load resistance R and inductance L from
an AC source of Vrms voltage Vs.
a) show that the mean or average voltage value of the DC output voltage Vo is given by
Cos V V
s o
90 . 0 = .
If R=4,L500mH, =30
0
b) Calculate:
Solution

Cos V Cos
V
Cos
V
t td Sin
V
V
s
s m m
dc
90 . 0
* 2 2 2
2
2
= = = =
+
b) (i) Xl=2fL=2**50*0.5H =157 This implies that the load current is going to be continuous.
Therefore A i V Cos Cos V V
dc s dc
8 . 46
4
1 . 187
1 . 187 30 * 240 * 90 . 0 90 . 0 = = = = = .
The current is almost constant since the ripple is almost negligible because of high circuit inductance.
Thus this current is both the average and the rms value i.e io =irms =46.78A

(ii) The thyristor average current is
A
i
t d i I
o tha
4 . 23
2
78 . 46
) ( *
2 2
1
0
= = + = =

A
i
t d i I
o
o thrms
1 . 33 ) (
2 2
1
2
1
2 2
1
2
=
+ =

W R i P
o o
48 . 8753 4 * 78 . 46 *
2 2
= = = This is also the input power to the converter. The VA
drawn from the supply is given by : 8 . 0
2 . 11227
48 . 8753
2 . 11227 240 * 78 . 46 = = = = PF W V I
s s
A thyristor semiconverter that can be used for the speed control of a dc motor consists of thyristors and
diodes. See fig below:
Thyristors T1 and T2 are fired at and (2 + ), respectively. See the waveforms. The motor is
connected to the input supply for the period < t< through T1 and D2, and the load voltage is the
same as the input voltage. Beyond , Vo tends to reverse as the input voltage changes polarity. As Vo
tends to reverse , the diode Dfw (known as the free wheeling diode ) becomes forward biased and
starts to conduct. The motor current which was flowing from the supply through T1, is transferred to
Dfw, (i.e T1 commutates). The output terminals are shorted through the freewheeling diode during the
interval ( < t< + ) making Vo =0. At t= + , T2 is fired and it take over the motor current ia from
Dfw. The load current now flows through T2 and D1.At t=2 , Dfw, becomes forward biased again
and takes over the current from T2, and the process continues. See the waveforms. Note that if D
fw
is
not used, freewheeling action will take place through T1 and D2 during the interval (2 < t<2 + ).
) 1 (
* 2
) ( ) * * 2 (
1
Cos
V
t d t Sin V Vo
+ =
=
Note; Vo is always positive and therefore Vo*Io is always positive that is power flow is from the ac
supply to the dc load. Semiconverters do not invert power. However they are cheaper than full
converters.
Waveforms
Example
A single phase full converter is used to control the speed of a 5hp, 110V, 1200rpm, separately excited
dc motor. The converter is connected to a single phase 120V,60Hz supply. The armature resistance is
Ra =0.4 and armature circuit inductance is La=5mH. The motor voltage constant K =0.09V/rpm.
1. Rectifier(or motoring) operation. The dc machine operates as a motor runs at 1000rpm, and carries
an armature current of 30A. Assume that the motor current is ripple free.
2. Inverter Operation (Regenerating Action). Reversing the field excitation reverses the polarity of the
motor back emf Ea.
Solution
a) Ea =0.09*1000 =90V; Vo =Ea +IoRa =90+30 =102V,
0
2 . 19
120 * 2 2
102 = =
Cos
b) P =Io
2
*Ra + EaIo =VoIo =102*30 =3060W
c)The supply current has a square waveform with amplitude 30A (=Io). The rms supply current is I=30A .
If the losses in the converter are neglected, the power from the supply is the same as the power to the motor
Ps =3060W
2. (a) At the time of polarity reversal the back emf is Ea =90V and from Vo =Ea +IoRa =-90+30*0.4 =-
90+12 =-78V
Now
0
2 . 136 78 *
120 * 2 2
= = =
V Cos Vo
2
*0.4 =360W
For higher power applications, several kilowatts three phase circuits are preferable. The magnitude of
harmonic voltage is lower in three phase circuits than in single-phase circuits. This is due to increasing
number of pulses.
) 120 ( * * 2 ) 240 ( * * 2
) 120 ( * * 2
* * 2
0 0
0
+ = =
=
=
t Sin V t Sin V Vcn
t Sin V Vbn
t Sin V Van


0
0
, and T3 t =270
0
that is at the crossing
points of the phase voltages. Firing at these instants will also result in maximum output voltage. The
reference for the firing angle is therefore the crossing point of the phase voltages. The firing of the
thyristors can be delayed from these crossing points. In other words the firing angle is measured from
the crossing points of the phase voltages. Recall that in a single-phase converter, the firing angle was
measured from the zero crossing of the input supply voltage.
0
+ , and the output voltage is Vo=Van. The
output voltage io =Vo/R, and becomes zero at t =. Thyristor T1 turns off at this instant through
natural commutation. Thyristor T2 is fired att =150
0
+ , making Vo= Vbn. T2 turns off at t =300
0
.T3 is fired at
t =270
0
+ . Making Vo =Vcn.
Example
The load in the fig above now consists of a resistance and a very large inductance. The inductance is so
large that the output current io can be assumed to be continuous and ripple- free. For =60
0
.
Electronic Engineering Department
Electronic Drives Assignment 1
Tee 2102
Due Date 27/02/2006
Question 1
The source voltage is Vs =200V and the resistive load is 4. For this condition the
thyristor has a delay time of td =0.5s and a rise time of 3s at turn ON. The thyristor
leakage current is Ileak =2mA and the ON state voltage drop is V
th(ON)
=1.5V.
a) Sketch graphs illustrating the voltage and current response with respect to time
at turn on and show the delay time as well as the rise time. [4]
b) Determine the components of energy loss incurred in the thyristor during turn
on and, [6]
c) Compare the turn on loss with the thyristor loss during the ON state over an
equivalent interval of rise time (tri) [10]
Question 2
The maximum permissible junction temperature of a certain power transistor is
150
0
C. It is desired to operate the transistor with a power dissipation of 15W in an
ambient temperature of 40
0
C. The thermal resistances are as follows Rjc =0.5
0
C/W;
Rca =10
0
C/W.
a) Determine whether a heat sink is required for this application [5]
b) If a heatsink is required determine the maximum thermal resistance it can
have. Assume that a mica washer having a thermal resistance of Rw
=0.50
0
C/W must be used between the case and the heat sink [10]
Question 3
A semiconductor dissipates 25W through its case and its heat sink to the surrounding
air . The thermal resistances are as follows, device to case 1
0
C/W; case to heat sink
1.2
0
C/W and heat sink to air 0.7
0
C/W. In what maximum air temperature can the
device be operated if its temperature cannot exceed 100
0
C. [10]
Question 4
Two diodes having approximate characteristics in the forward direction:
Diode 1 1 10 * 44 . 2 88 . 0
4
i v

+ =
Diode 2 2 10 * 32 . 2 96 . 0
4
i v

+ =
Are connected in parallel. Find the current in each diode if the total current is :
a) 400,
b) 1200,
c) 2000, [9]
What single value of resistance connected in series with each diode will bring the
diode currents to within 8% of equal current sharing with a total current of 1200?
How will this affect the current sharing at total currents of 400A and 2000A ?[11]
Electonic drives assignment
Assignment 2: Assignment 2: Assignment 2: Assignment 2:- -- - Electronics Drives Electronics Drives Electronics Drives Electronics Drives

Ouestion1

A three phase half wave controlled thyristors converter supplying a highly
inductive load of 10 and a supply of line voltage of 415.7V at 50Hz.
For a firing angle of 30
0

Determine:
a}
i} the average load voltage and average current
ii} the rms thyristors current and
iii} the converter power factor [15j
b} What are the maximum values of load power and converter power factor
obtainable from the circuit
[5j

Ouestion 2
A three phase full wave controlled thyristors converter is supplying a highly
inductive load of 10 and a supply of line voltage of 415.7V at 50Hz.
For a firing angle of 30
0

Determine:
a}
i} the average load voltage and average current
ii} the rms thyristors current and
iii} the converter power factor [15j
b} What are the maximum values of load power and converter power factor
obtainable from the circuit.
[5j

Ouestion 3
A full wave fully controlled single phase bridge rectifier feeds a load
resistance R and inductance L from an AC source of rms voltage Vs. A
flywheel diode is fitted across the load.

a} 8how that the output voltage is given by V=0.9{1+cos}/2 [4j
Given that = 4 R . mH L 500 = . =30. V Vs 240 = and the supply frequency
to be 50Hz. Calculate
i} the average and rms output current [4j
ii}the thyristors average and rms currents [4j
iii}the diode average and rms currents [4j
iv} the power factor of the converter [4j
Assignment3
Question1
The speed of a separately excited motor is controlled by a single phase full wave
converter in figure below
A full converter also controls the field circuit and the field current is set to the
maximum possible value. The ac supply voltage to the armature and field
converters is a single phase of 440V, 60Hz. The armature resistance is Ra
=0.25 , the field circuit resistance is Rf =175 , and the motor voltage constant is
Kv =1.4V/Arad/s. The armature current corresponding to the load demand is Ia
=45A. The viscous friction and no load losses are negligible. The inductances of
the armature and field circuits are sufficient to make the armature and field
currents continuous and ripple free. If the delay angle of the armature converter

a
=60
0
and the armature current is I
a
=45A. Determine:
a) the torque developed by the motor Td [7]
b) the speed , [8]
c) the input power factor of the drive [5]
Question 2
The speed of a 20HP, 300V, 900r.p.m separately excited dc motor controlled by a
three phase full converter. A three phase full converter also controls the field
circuit. The ac input to the armature and field converters is 3 phase, Y
connected, 208V, and 60Hz. The armature resistance is Ra=0.25 ,the field
circuit resistance is Rf =145 ,and the motor voltage constant is Kv =1.2V/A
rad/s. The viscous friction and no load losses can be considered negligible. The
armature and field currents are continuous and ripple free.
a) if the field converter is operated at the maximum field current and the
developed torque is Td= 116NM at 900r.p.m determine the delay angle of
the armature converter
a
. [10]
b) if the circuit converter is set for the maximum field current, thye
developed torque is Td= 116Nm and the delay angle of the armature
converter is
a
=0, determine the speed of the motor. [5]
c) For the same load demand in b), determine the delay angle of the field
converter if the speed has been increased to 1800r.p.m [5]
Question 3
A dc-dc converter is used in regenerative braking of a dc series motor .The dc
supply voltage is 600V. The armature resistance is Ra= 0.02 and the field
resistance is Rf =0.03 . The back emf constant Kv =15.27mV/Arad/s. The
average armature current is maintained constant at Ia=250A. The armature
current is continuous and has negligible ripple . If the duty cycle of the dc-dc
converter is 60%, determine ;
a) the average voltage across the dc-dc converter, Vch [2]
b) the power regenerated to the dc supply Pg, [3]
c) the equivalent load resistance of the motor acting as a generator, Req,
d) the minimum permissible braking speed
min
, [4]
e) the maximum permissible braking speed
max
and [4]
f) the motor speed. [4]
Electronic Engineering Department
Electronic Drives Assignment 1
Tee 2102
Due Date 4/03/2008
Question 1
The source voltage is Vs =200V and the resistive load is 4. For this condition the
thyristor has a delay time of td =0.5s and a rise time of 3s at turn ON. The thyristor
leakage current is Ileak =2mA and the ON state voltage drop is V
th(ON)
=1.5V.
a) Sketch graphs illustrating the voltage and current response with respect to time
at turn on and show the delay time as well as the rise time. [4]
b) Determine the components of energy loss incurred in the thyristor during turn
on and, [6]
c) Compare the turn on loss with the thyristor loss during the ON state over an
equivalent interval of rise time (tri) [10]
Question 2
The maximum permissible junction temperature of a certain power transistor is
150
0
C. It is desired to operate the transistor with a power dissipation of 15W in an
ambient temperature of 40
0
C. The thermal resistances are as follows Rjc =0.5
0
C/W;
Rca =10
0
C/W.
a) Determine whether a heat sink is required for this application [5]
b) If a heatsink is required determine the maximum thermal resistance it can
have. Assume that a mica washer having a thermal resistance of Rw
=0.50
0
C/W must be used between the case and the heat sink [10]
Question 3
A semiconductor dissipates 25W through its case and its heat sink to the surrounding
air . The thermal resistances are as follows, device to case 1
0
C/W; case to heat sink
1.2
0
C/W and heat sink to air 0.7
0
C/W. In what maximum air temperature can the
device be operated if its temperature cannot exceed 100
0
C. [10]
Question 4
Two diodes having approximate characteristics in the forward direction:
Diode 1 1 10 * 44 . 2 88 . 0
4
i v

+ =
Diode 2 2 10 * 32 . 2 96 . 0
4
i v

+ =
Are connected in parallel. Find the current in each diode if the total current is :
a) 400,
b) 1200,
c) 2000, [9]
What single value of resistance connected in series with each diode will bring the
diode currents to within 8% of equal current sharing with a total current of 1200?
How will this affect the current sharing at total currents of 400A and 2000A ?[11]

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1

= where t is the instantaneous time

= it can be noted that power is constant hence:

Cos Cos Cos

Thyristor Full Converter

The rms voltage is given by the following expression:

The conduction angle of the thyristors is given by = - , hence = +

Continuous load Conduction

iii) The output power to the load is :

If thyristor T1 is fired at t =30

Thyristor Full Converter

The supply voltage amperes are S =3Via =3*277*106.1 =88169.1VA

= where t is the instantaneous time

= it can be noted that power is constant hence:

Thyristor Rectifier, Resistive Load

Cos Cos Cos

Thyristor Full Converter

The rms voltage is given by the following expression:

The conduction angle of the thyristors is given by = - , hence = +

Continuous load Conduction

iii) The output power to the load is :

If thyristor T1 is fired at t =30

Thyristor Full Converter

The supply voltage amperes are S =3Via =3*277*106.1 =88169.1VA

Cos Cos Cos

Thyristor Full Converter

The rms voltage is given by the following expression:

The conduction angle of the thyristors is given by = - , hence = +

Continuous load Conduction

iii) The output power to the load is :

If thyristor T1 is fired at t =30

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The supply voltage amperes are S =3Via =3277106.1 =88169.1VA

The supply voltage amperes are S =3Via =3277106.1 =88169.1VA