Full list

9%
8,420

86
Micr
osoft
8%
47,64
5

87
Yaho
o
16%
7,915

88
Four
Seaso
ns
Hotel
s
21%
12,85
1

89
Brigh
t
Horiz
ons
Famil
y
Solut
ions
7%
14,66
0

90
Price
water
house
Coop
ers
5%
29,81
8
FORTUNE 500
Revenues Profits
Rank Company
($ millions)($ millions)
1 Wal-Mart Stores 351,139.0 11,284.0
2 Exxon Mobil 347,254.0 39,500.0
3 General Motors 207,349.0 -1,978.0
4 Chevron 200,567.0 17,138.0
5 ConocoPhillips 172,451.0 15,550.0
6 General Electric 168,307.0 20,829.0
7 Ford Motor 160,126.0 -12,613.0
8 Citigroup 146,777.0 21,538.0
9 Bank of America Corp. 117,017.0 21,133.0
10 American Intl. Group 113,194.0 14,048.0
11 J.P. Morgan Chase & Co. 99,973.0 14,444.0
12 Berkshire Hathaway 98,539.0 11,015.0
13 Verizon Communications 93,221.0 6,197.0
14 Hewlett-Packard 91,658.0 6,198.0
15 Intl. Business Machines 91,424.0 9,492.0
16 Valero Energy 91,051.0 5,463.0
17 Home Depot 90,837.0 5,761.0
18 McKesson 88,050.0 751.0
19 Cardinal Health 81,895.1 1,000.1
20 Morgan Stanley 76,688.0 7,472.0
21 UnitedHealth Group 71,542.0 4,159.0
22 Merrill Lynch 70,591.0 7,499.0
23 Altria Group 70,324.0 12,022.0
24 Goldman Sachs Group 69,353.0 9,537.0
25 Procter & Gamble 68,222.0 8,684.0
26 Kroger 66,111.2 1,114.9
27 AT&T 63,055.0 7,356.0
28 Boeing 61,530.0 2,215.0
29 AmerisourceBergen 61,203.1 467.7
30 Marathon Oil 60,643.0 5,234.0
31 State Farm Insurance Cos 60,528.0 5,315.5
32 Costco Wholesale 60,151.2 1,103.2
33 Target 59,490.0 2,787.0
34 Dell 57,095.0 2,614.0
35 Wellpoint 56,953.0 3,094.9
36 Johnson & Johnson 53,324.0 11,053.0
37 MetLife 53,275.0 6,293.0
38 Sears Holdings 53,012.0 1,490.0
39 Pfizer 52,415.0 19,337.0
40 Dow Chemical 49,124.0 3,724.0
41 Wells Fargo 47,979.0 8,482.0
42 United Technologies 47,829.0 3,732.0
43 United Parcel Service 47,547.0 4,202.0
44 Walgreen 47,409.0 1,750.6
45 Lowe's 46,927.0 3,105.0
46 Wachovia Corp. 46,810.0 7,791.0
47 Lehman Brothers Holdings 46,709.0 4,007.0
48 Time Warner 44,788.0 6,552.0
49 Microsoft 44,282.0 12,599.0
50 Freddie Mac 44,002.0 2,211.0
51 CVS/Caremark 43,813.8 1,368.9
52 Motorola 43,739.0 3,661.0
53 Sprint Nextel 43,531.0 1,329.0
54 Medco Health Solutions 42,543.7 630.2
55 Caterpillar 41,517.0 3,537.0
56 Safeway 40,185.0 870.6
57 Lockheed Martin 39,620.0 2,529.0
58 Caremark Rx 36,750.2 1,074.0
59 Archer Daniels Midland 36,596.1 1,312.1
60 Sunoco 36,081.0 979.0
61 Allstate 35,796.0 4,993.0
62 Intel 35,382.0 5,044.0
63 PepsiCo 35,137.0 5,642.0
64 Walt Disney 34,285.0 3,374.0
65 Sysco 32,628.4 855.3
66 Prudential Financial 32,488.0 3,428.0
67 Johnson Controls 32,413.0 1,028.0
68 FedEx 32,294.0 1,806.0
69 Honeywell Intl. 31,367.0 2,083.0
70 Ingram Micro 31,357.5 265.8
71 Alcoa 30,896.0 2,248.0
72 Best Buy 30,848.0 1,140.0
73 Northrop Grumman 30,304.0 1,542.0
74 DuPont 28,982.0 3,148.0
75 Hess 28,720.0 1,916.0
76 Federated Dept. Stores 28,711.0 995.0
77 Cisco Systems 28,484.0 5,580.0
78 New York Life Insurance 28,365.1 1,035.4
79 American Express 27,145.0 3,707.0
80 TIAA-CREF 26,756.8 2,333.8
81 Washington Mutual 26,561.0 3,558.0
82 Hartford Financial Services 26,500.0 2,745.0
83 Delphi 26,392.0 -5,464.0
84 Comcast 25,700.0 2,533.0
85 Aetna 25,568.6 1,701.7
86 Tyson Foods 25,559.0 -196.0
87 HCA 25,477.0 1,036.0
88 News Corp. 25,327.0 2,314.0
89 Travelers Cos. 25,090.0 4,208.0
90 Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance24,863.4 1,266.0
91 Countrywide Financial 24,444.6 2,674.8
92 General Dynamics 24,212.0 1,856.0
93 International Paper 24,186.0 1,050.0
94 Coca-Cola 24,088.0 5,080.0
95 Liberty Mutual Ins. Group 23,520.0 1,626.0
96 Raytheon 23,274.0 1,283.0
97 3M 22,923.0 3,851.0
98 Deere 22,768.9 1,693.8
99 Merck 22,636.0 4,433.8
100 Halliburton 22,576.

The Nile valley has been the site of one of the most influential civilizations which
developed a vast array of diverse structures encompassing ancient Egyptian
architecture. The architectural monuments, which include the Great Pyramid of Giza
and the Great Sphinx of Giza, are among the largest and most famous.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Characteristics of Egyptian Architecture

• 2 The Giza pyramid complex
• 3 Karnak
• 4 Luxor Temple
• 5 References
• 6 See also
• 7 Gallery

• 8 External links

[edit] Characteristics of Egyptian Architecture

Due to the scarcity of lumber,[1] the two predominant building materials used in ancient
Egypt were sunbaked mud brick and stone, mainly limestone, but also sandstone and
granite in considerable quantities.[2] From the Old Kingdom onward, stone was generally
reserved for tombs and temples, while bricks were used even for royal palaces, fortresses,
the walls of temple precincts and towns, and for subsidiary buildings in temple
complexes.

Egypt houses were made out of mud collected from the Nile river. It was placed in molds
and left to dry in the hot sun to harden for use in construction.

Many ancient Egyptian towns have disappeared because they were situated near the
cultivated area of the Nile Valley and were flooded as the river bed slowly rose during the
millennia, or the mud bricks of which they were built were used by peasants as fertilizer.
Others are inaccessible, new buildings having been erected on ancient ones. Fortunately,
the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved some mud brick structures. Examples include the
village Deir al-Madinah, the Middle Kingdom town at Kahun,[3] and the fortresses at
Buhen[4] and Mirgissa. Also, many temples and tombs have survived because they were
built on high ground unaffected by the Nile flood and were constructed of stone.

Thus, our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly on religious

monuments,[5] massive structures characterized by thick, sloping walls with few openings,
possibly echoing a method of construction used to obtain stability in mud walls. In a
similar manner, the incised and flatly modeled surface adornment of the stone buildings
may have derived from mud wall ornamentation. Although the use of the arch was
developed during the fourth dynasty, all monumental buildings are post and lintel
constructions, with flat roofs constructed of huge stone blocks supported by the external
walls and the closely spaced columns.

Exterior and interior walls, as well as the columns and piers, were covered with
hieroglyphic and pictorial frescoes and carvings painted in brilliant colors.[6] Many motifs
of Egyptian ornamentation are symbolic, such as the scarab, or sacred beetle, the solar
disk, and the vulture. Other common motifs include palm leaves, the papyrus plant, and
the buds and flowers of the lotus.[7] Hieroglyphs were inscribed for decorative purposes
as well as to record historic events or spells.

The Giza pyramid complex

Main article: Giza pyramid complex

The Giza Necropolis stands on the Giza Plateau, on the outskirts of Cairo, Egypt. This
complex of ancient monuments is located some 8 kilometres (5 mi) inland into the desert
from the old town of Giza on the Nile, some 20 kilometers (12 mi) southwest of Cairo
city center. This Ancient Egyptian necropolis consists of the Pyramid of Khufu (also
known as the Great Pyramid and the Pyramid of Cheops), the somewhat smaller Pyramid
of Khafre (or Kephren), and the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or
Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens"
pyramids, and the Great Sphinx.

The Pyramids of Giza

The pyramids, which were built in the Fourth Dynasty, testify to the power of the
pharaonic religion and state. The Great Pyramid, which was probably completed c. 2580
BC, is the oldest and largest of the pyramids, and is the only surviving monument of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The pyramid of Khafre is believed to have been
completed around 2532 BC, at the end of Khafre's reign. The date of construction of
Menkaure's pyramid is unknown, because Menkaure's reign has not been accurately
defined, but it was probably completed sometime during the 26th century BC.

With few openings, the pyramids had complex mazes of tunnels and rooms all hidden by
the massive hunks of stone. Nevertheless, grave robbers stubbornly stole from the
pyramids, thus forcing the ancient Egyptians to halt construction on these massive
structures and build their tombs in the Valley of the Kings instead. In a canyon far from
any ancient Egyptian town, the Egyptians began to build inconspicuous tombs dug into
the ground, thinking the tombs would go unnoticed by grave robbers.

Karnak
Main article: Karnak

The temple complex of Karnak is located on the banks of the River Nile some 2.5
kilometers (1.5 mi) north of Luxor. It consists of four main parts, the Precinct of Amon-
Re, the Precinct of Montu, the Precinct of Mut and the Temple of Amenhotep IV
(dismantled), as well as a few smaller temples and sanctuaries located outside the
enclosing walls of the four main parts, and several avenues of ram-headed sphinxes
connecting the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Amon-Re and Luxor Temple.
The hypostyle hall of Karnak Temple

The key difference between Karnak and most of the other temples and sites in Egypt is
the length of time over which it was developed and used. Construction work began in the
16th century BC. Approximately 30 pharaohs contributed to the buildings, enabling it to
reach a size, complexity and diversity not seen elsewhere. Few of the individual features
of Karnak are unique, but the size and number of features is overwhelming.

Luxor Temple
Main article: Luxor Temple

The Luxor Temple is a large ancient Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of
the River Nile in the city today known as Luxor (ancient Thebes). Construction work on
the temple began during the reign of Amenhotep III in the 14th century BC. Horemheb
and Tutankhamun added columns, statues, and friezes – and Akhenaten had earlier
obliterated his father's cartouches and installed a shrine to the Aten – but the only major
expansion effort took place under Ramesses II some 100 years after the first stones were
put in place. Luxor is thus unique among the main Egyptian temple complexes in having
only two pharaohs leave their mark on its architectural structure.

Luxor Temple, from the east bank of the Nile

The temple proper begins with the 24 metre (79 ft) high First Pylon, built by Ramesses II.
The pylon was decorated with scenes of Ramesses's military triumphs (particularly the
Battle of Qadesh); later pharaohs, particularly those of the Nubian and Ethiopian
dynasties, also recorded their victories there. This main entrance to the temple complex
was originally flanked by six colossal statues of Ramesses – four seated, and two
standing – but only two (both seated) have survived. Modern visitors can also see a 25
metre (82 ft) tall pink granite obelisk: this one of a matching pair until 1835, when the
other one was taken to Paris where it now stands in the centre of the Place de la
Concorde.

Through the pylon gateway leads into a peristyle courtyard, also built by Ramesses II.
This area, and the pylon, were built at an oblique angle to the rest of the temple,
presumably to accommodate the three pre-existing barque shrines located in the
northwest corner. After the peristyle courtyard comes the processional colonnade built by
Amenhotep III – a 100 metre (328 ft) corridor lined by 14 papyrus-capital columns.
Friezes on the wall describe the stages in the Opet Festival, from sacrifices at Karnak at
the top left, through Amun's arrival at Luxor at the end of that wall, and concluding with
his return on the opposite side. The decorations were put in place by Tutankhamun: the
boy pharaoh is depicted, but his names have been replaced with those of Horemheb.
Beyond the colonnade is a peristyle courtyard, which also dates back to Amenhotep's
original construction. The best preserved columns are on the eastern side, where some
traces of original colour can be seen. The southern side of this courtyard is made up of a
36-column hypostyle court that leads into the inner sanctums of the temple, which begin
with a dark chamber not achechamber.

Mesopotamian art and architecture

Mesopotamian art and architecture were produced by the diverse peoples who occupied the land
between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers from about 3500 to 539 BC. The earliest civilization of
MESOPOTAMIA was created by Sumerian-speaking people, and although their Sumerian
language was preserved, the original inhabitants eventually either died out or were absorbed into
the population of SEMITES who moved into this area at various periods in history.

Mesopotamia is divided into two geographical regions--the north with its mountains and foothills
and the southern plain. Humans are known to have occupied caves in the mountains of
northeastern Mesopotamia during the Paleolithic period (the Old Stone Age). By the 6th
millennium BC, Neolithic village cultures based on rainfall agriculture were in existence in the
northern foothills (see SAMARRA). Southern Mesopotamia was not settled until somewhat later
in the 6th millennium BC, when a simple form of irrigation farming may have been developed.
Elaboration of irrigation technology and cultivation of the date palm and barley made possible the
growth of cities in the south. With changing patterns of land use and cultivation, the center of
Mesopotamian civilization moved slowly north from Sumer in southernmost Babylonia to Akkad in
northern Babylonia and finally to Assyria in the far north.

The many different Mesopotamian peoples and their shifting foci of power did not permit the
cultural uniformity and continuity that are reflected in the contemporaneous artistic and
architectural traditions of ancient Egypt. Nevertheless, some characteristics of Mesopotamian art
and architecture were clearly shaped by the historical setting. The first and most enduring
architectural monument was the temple. This fact reflects a view of life in which human beings
were meant to serve the gods, who were personified as powerful and capricious forces of nature.
From the time of the earliest preserved cities, it is apparent that strong fortifications were
necessary because the city-states of Mesopotamia were so often at war with each other. Further,
cities seem to have been deliberately planned, or left unplanned, to be defensible, with mazelike
streets to puzzle invaders and with walled inner areas into which the inhabitants could retreat.
Even temples, which were built according to a number of different ground plans, were laid out so
that access to the statue of the god was somehow interrupted or made distant and difficult.

As did the architecture, Mesopotamian art had two major preoccupations--man's relationship to
the gods and conflict on either a real or mythological plane. Although art was primarily created for
temple or king, a number of small objects were also produced, such as cylinder seals and clay
plaques with mythological scenes. These objects were probably owned to a great extent by the
population at large.
Early Mesopotamian art was usually small in scale, because the south was poor in natural
resources, and materials like stone and metals had to be imported. Later, Assyrian palaces were
decorated with large stone-relief sculptures and immense gate guardian figures of animal or
monstrous form. However, the oldest and most enduring form of art was the cylinder seal, a small
stone cylinder covered with a design cut into its surface. Such seals when rolled over a wet clay
tablet served a practical purpose: to identify their owners and to seal a variety of business
transactions. These little objects were also frequently used as jewelry or as magical amulets. Like
so many other forms of Mesopotamian art, they were intimately associated with writing. The seal
impressions, even before the owner's name was incised on the cylinder, stood for a particular
individual just as a signature does today.

The history of Mesopotamian art and architecture is conventionally divided into a number of
periods. These divisions are based on historical evidence, scientific investigations, and
stratigraphy of excavated sites--each of these coupled with a certain amount of guesswork.
Particularly in the early periods, the dating is a matter of speculation, and different scholars give
different names to the historical periods. The names and dates used here have been chosen for
their clarity and simplicity. For further discussion of problems of chronology, the reader is directed
to the appended bibliography, where almost every listed work deals to some extent with the
difficult subject of chronology.

PROTOLITERATE PERIOD (c.3500-2900 BC) The first period of Mesopotamian civilization is the
Protoliterate. This phase is most clearly seen at the southern city of URUK and indeed may have
arisen there. However, Uruk's architecture is based on earlier forms at ERIDU, and during the
Protoliterate period several southern cities--and even some cities in northern Mesopotamia and
Syria--shared cultural traits with Uruk. Although there is little historical evidence, this cultural
network was probably based on trade.

Southern Mesopotamian cities were built around temples, and the main temple in each city was
dedicated to the chief god or goddess of that city. The White Temple on the Anu Ziggurat at Uruk
is a characteristic example of Protoliterate temple architecture. The whitewashed outer walls of
this small rectangular mudbrick structure are formed into the niches and buttresses that are a
typical feature of all Mesopotamian temples. The temple stands on a ZIGGURAT, a tall artificial
mountain formed from the remains of temples built and rebuilt on this site for centuries.

The Protoliterate art at Uruk, largely religious in theme, exists principally in the form of temple
furnishings. Typical objects of the period include the so-called cult vase of Uruk, a 1-m-high (3-ft)
alabaster vessel decorated with scenes of offerings brought to the temple (Iraq Museum,
Baghdad) and a beautiful stone head, 22 cm high (8.6 in), of a woman perhaps representing the
fertility goddess Inanna (Iraq Museum). This image had probably been set into a temple wall as
part of a cult relief made of various materials. The face is softly and realistically modeled; the
white stone must have looked like flesh when surrounded by its original colorful inlays for the
eyes, eyebrows, and headdress.

EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD (c.2900-2370 BC) During the Early Dynastic period, independent
city-states flourished in southern Mesopotamia, in MARI on the middle Euphrates River, and as
far north as the city of Assur, as well as the Syrian city known today as Tell Khuera. The southern
cities were the Sumerian heartland, while Semitic-speaking peoples inhabited the northern city-
states. Trade networks united these distant places, and toward the end of the period kings began
to conquer and rule over several city-states.

Architecture

In the flourishing cities of this period, temples were numerous. The exact form might vary
because of local traditions and the particular shape of the site, but most temples had a
rectangular CELLA (the inner sacred chamber), with some sort of indirect access to the statue of
the god that stood within it. For large and important temples of this period, an unusual form
appeared which has so far been discovered at three cities--LAGASH, Khafaje, and Al 'Ubaid. This
was the temple oval, an immense oval platform on which a temple was constructed, with a
second outer oval wall surrounding the entire temple complex. Large palaces have been
excavated at KISH and Mari, evidence of the rising power of local city rulers during the Early
Dynastic period. Similarly, the city walls of Uruk testify to the growing need to fortify cities in this
period of increasing warfare.

Art

Most surviving objects of Early Dynastic art are small figurines of worshipers, which were
discovered in temples, where they were probably left as offerings by pious visitors and pilgrims.
These sculptures are generally small, under 30 cm (11.8 in) in height, although a few rare
examples are as tall as two-thirds life-size. Most of the figurines are male, although some are of
females with elaborate gowns and headdresses. The typical male worshiper is shown standing,
wearing a long, fringed skirt, which leaves the chest bare. The most prominent features of these
statues are the inlaid eyes, which seemingly stare toward the god to whom they were dedicated,
and the hands clasped in prayer. Many of the statues are crudely made, perhaps by amateurs;
others exhibit more skillful carving, and a few reflect exceptionally fine craftsmanship.

In addition to these sculptures and numerous temple furnishings, there are certain monuments of
the Early Dynastic period that demonstrate the rising power of the king. The most famous is the
limestone Stele of the Vultures (1.9 m/6.2 ft, restored height; Louvre, Paris), made for King
Eannatum of Lagash. Sculpted in relief on the front of this stele, the king is shown leading his
army to victory while vultures peck the disembodied heads of his victims, inhabitants of a
neighboring city-state. On the rear, the god who gave Eannatum his victory is depicted as an
immense figure gathering the enemy into a huge net. In addition to the lengthy relief images,
inscriptions cover both sides of the stele. The theme of conflict also occurs on cylinder seals of
this period, although in a different way. The seals are decorated with so-called combat friezes,
continuously repeated designs in which heroes and animals are portrayed in a seemingly endless
struggle for survival.

A spectacular treasure trove of Early Dynastic culture was discovered at the Royal Cemetery at
UR, dating from c.2500 BC. Here, 16 elaborately built tombs contain, in addition to the chief
occupant (who may have been a ruler or a ritual figure), a number of human sacrifices. The main
tombs of these graves were furnished with a wealth of luxuriously decorated objects, including
gold cups and bowls, jewelry of precious stones and metals, inlaid harps, and other items that
together provide some idea of the lively and colorful material culture of the time.

AKKADIAN PERIOD (c.2370-2230 BC) The Akkadian period, the first true Mesopotamian empire,
was dominated by a dynasty of Semitic rulers whose capital city of AKKAD (yet to be discovered)
was located somewhere north of Sumer, but still within Babylonia. Although this short-lived phase
has as yet yielded few architectural remains, the Akkadian art that has been found is of very high
quality and represents perhaps the most unique art created during the history of Mesopotamia.
Truly imperial, the art focuses on the ruler rather than on religious events. A now headless diorite
statue (94 cm/37 in high) of King Manishtusu (Louvre, Paris) from SUSA, depicts deftly and with
regal elegance the long, softly rippling robes worn by the king. A bronze head (36.6 cm/14.4 in
high) of a ruler, discovered at NINEVEH, is sometimes identified with the king Naram Sin (Iraq
Museum, Baghdad). The king, whose strong features are sensitively modeled, has an elaborately
braided headdress or helmet and an elaborately curled beard.

The 2-m-high (6-ft) sandstone victory stele of King Naram Sin from Susa (Louvre, Paris) is the
most unusual monument of this period. On the conically shaped stele, the king, portrayed larger
than his soldiers and wearing the horned crown of a god, stands facing a conical mountain; above
are two stars, divine symbols. In contrast to the Early Dynastic Stele of the Vultures, where divine
and human powers are separated on opposite sides of the monument, the two forces are here
united in the presence of the king, who proudly records his military victory.

Many of the Akkadian cylinder seals display designs that are as beautiful as those appearing on
the royal sculpture. Those decorated with combat friezes now appear in the form of separate
pairs of combatants, carved with great realism and monumentality of form. In addition a rich
variety of mythological scenes depict epic and divine tales.

NEO-SUMERIAN PERIOD (c.2230-2000 BC) In about 2230 BC, a band of mountaineers, the
Guti, overthrew the Akkadian empire. The following period was marked by a Sumerian revival
under the kings of Ur, who drove off the Guti and then ruled over Sumer and Akkad from c.2120
to 2000 BC. Early in this period the rulers of the city-state of Lagash built temples and produced
sculpture that differed greatly from Akkadian art. Gudea, ruler of Lagash, commissioned a series
of hardstone sculptures in which he is depicted as a humble and pious worshiper of the gods,
rather than as their equal. While the fine artisanship of these sculptures must have been inspired
by Akkadian art, the religious tone seems more in keeping with the Early Dynastic period.

The kings of Ur continued to express a similar tone in their attitudes toward the gods. Much
architecture of the city of Ur during the Neo-Sumerian period has been excavated, and it is
apparent that although these rulers had great political power, their architectural efforts were
largely devoted to religious expression.

At the center of Ur was the religious precinct, which contained a large and elaborate ziggurat to
the moon god Nannar (the chief deity of Ur), a smaller temple to Nannar's wife, and a still smaller
royal palace. The ziggurat of Nannar was built in stages and was faced with a niched surface of
baked brick. A temple to the god, which could be reached by three ramps, was placed atop the
ziggurat. A smaller temple was located at the ziggurat's base. Other such ziggurats were built in
many cities throughout the empire.

A characteristic form of temple used during this period was the so-called broad cella--a broad and
shallow room approached through a series of entrance halls and courts. In this temple the statue
of the god, or in some cases the deified ruler, could be glimpsed from afar. The statue was kept
separate from the worshiper not by the layout of the temple as in earlier times, but by the many
axially arranged spaces that separated the worshiper from his god.

Compared to the architectural remains, Neo-Sumerian art is scarce. Those pieces which have
been preserved are religious and conservative, yet exquisitely crafted, as is the art of Gudea. The
designs of cylinder seals are rigidly composed, with a similar preponderance of religious themes.

ISIN-LARSA AND OLD BABYLONIAN PERIODS (c.2006-c.1600 BC) In 2000 BC the rulers of Ur
fell before invading AMORITES, a new wave of Semitic-speaking people who eventually were
absorbed into the city-states of Babylonia. From then on, Semitic languages were to dominate
Mesopotamian life. Early in the 2d millennium BC a number of independent city-states flourished,
but an empire of small proportions was formed by King HAMMURABI of Babylon in the 18th
century BC and was maintained by his successors.

The architectural evidence of these two periods is not very extensive. Nothing is known of
Babylon at this time, and the most impressive building yet excavated is the palace at Mari, a
powerful trading center before it fell (c.1760 BC) to Hammurabi.

The vast palace, with its complex ground plan, was an administrative, political, and religious
center for the ruler of the city-state. Large wall paintings here of human figures and mythological
animals are rare examples of the monumental art of this period.
The best-known piece of art of the Old Babylonian period is the stone stele inscribed with the law
code of Hammurabi (Louvre, Paris). At the top of this 2.3-m-high (90.5-in) stele Hammurabi is
shown worshiping Shamash, the god of justice, who handed down the laws (inscribed beneath
this relief sculpture) to the king who would enforce them.

The images of the pious king and the powerful god are based on Neo-Sumerian prototypes, and
the use of a picture to explain and justify the written law illustrates the close interrelationship
between art and writing in ancient Mesopotamia. Cylinder seals of these periods show much the
same themes as in the Neo-Sumerian period.

NEO-ASSYRIAN PERIOD (c.1000-612 BC) Little outstanding art or architecture was produced
during the Middle Babylonian and Middle Assyrian periods of the second half of the 2d millennium
BC. However, the succeeding Assyrian Empire, formed in the first half of the 1st millennium BC,
became the most extensive Mesopotamian kingdom, and its material culture represents the
crowning glory of Mesopotamian art and architecture.

Warfare and trade were the two main concerns of Assyrian kings, and their art and architecture
were cleverly designed to further these two concerns. Assyrian cities such as Calah (NIMRUD),
Nineveh, and Dur Sharrukin (KHORSABAD) were military fortresses. The latter, built by King
Sargon II (r. 721-705 BC), is a splendid example of Assyrian city architecture. The city was
surrounded by heavy walls with powerful gates. Guarding the main gate was a small fortress built
over the city wall, and the main citadel rose over the wall at the rear of the city. The inner area
was perhaps filled with tents or other light structures, because no architectural remains have
been found there. The main citadel was itself a small walled city with palaces and temples.

The most important building in the city was the huge royal palace, built at the very back of the
inner citadel. Within the palace were public rooms and courtyards, private apartments for the
king, and an entire temple complex with a freestanding ziggurat.

Unlike southern cities, which were built around central temple areas, Assyrian cities had a
peripheral emphasis, with the most important structure being the royal palace. Also unlike that of
the south, Assyrian architecture could make use of local stone for orthostats, monumental vertical
slabs that lined walls and gates. Notwithstanding these differences in architectural style and
material, both northern and southern cities were planned to make it difficult for invaders to
penetrate the main civic center, because warfare was a constant threat in Mesopotamian life.

Assyrian art was largely architectural decoration in the form of relief sculptures on the walls of
palaces and of huge guardian figures at gate entrances. This sculpture was meant to impress and
intimidate people with the power and sanctity of the Assyrian king. The relief sculptures depict the
endless battles of the Assyrian armies; inevitably, the king is shown triumphant over everyone
who had dared to oppose the mighty empire. Sometimes the king is portrayed in a ritual stressing
his religious powers, or else he is shown accepting the tribute brought him by the many peoples
of the empire. The king might also be shown as a skillful hunter who could dispatch dangerous
wild animals like lions and bulls as easily as he could conquer his enemies.

A remarkable series of sculptures (now preserved in the British Museum, London) was
discovered in the palace of King Ashurbanipal (r. 668-627 BC) at Nineveh. This king was
particularly fond of sports, and the magnificent reliefs show many aspects of lion hunts as well as
hunts of less dangerous animals. All Assyrian relief sculptures reveal a fascination with detail,
with history, and with combat, an enduring theme throughout the history of Mesopotamian art.
Cylinder seals of this period also frequently depict combat, often between a superhuman hero
and a monster.
NEO-BABYLONIAN PERIOD (609-539 BC) In 609 BC the Assyrian Empire was conquered by an
army of Medes and Babylonians, and the last Mesopotamian culture was that of the short-lived
Neo-Babylonian Empire. The city of Babylon during this period displayed a combination of
northern and southern architectural traditions. The city was built around a huge temple complex
sacred to MARDUK, the chief Babylonian god; here stood the traditional temples as well as the
ziggurat known in the Bible as the Tower of BABEL. The royal palace was built out over the city
wall, perhaps in imitation of Assyrian palace architecture, although its rambling layout and
hanging gardens, or planted terraces, were stylistically far more southern than northern.

Also typically southern was the wall decoration used in the city. Instead of the grim and powerful
themes of Assyrian relief sculptures, Babylon was adorned with colorful glazed bricks on the wall
of the massive ISHTAR Gate on the main road or procession way, and on the facade of the
throne room in the royal palace. These glazed brick panels, usually in the form of molded reliefs
of lions, bulls, and strange monsters, gave an elegant and sophisticated air to the city. Proud of
their millennia of historic tradition, the rulers of Babylon chose to emphasize beauty rather than
power in their art.

The Babylonian Empire fell to the Persians in 539 BC, and thus the final Mesopotamian kingdom
was supplanted as the center of Near Eastern civilization. However, the traditions of
Mesopotamian art and architecture were so rich and enduring that they enhanced the cultures of
surrounding peoples, left their imprint in the Bible, and inspired many aspects of Greek art and
architecture

Architecture was extinct in Greece from the end of the Mycenaean period (about 1200
BC) to the 7th century BC, when urban life and prosperity recovered to a point where
public building could be undertaken. But since many Greek buildings in the colonization
period (8th - 6th century BC), were made of wood or mud-brick or clay, nothing remains
of them except for a few ground-plans, and almost no written sources on early
architecture or descriptions of these embryonic buildings exist.

Common materials of Greek architecture were wood, used for supports and roof beams;
plaster used for sinks and bathtubs unbaked brick used for walls, especially for private
homes; limestone and marble, used for columns, walls, and upper portions of temples and
public buildings; terracotta, used for roof tiles and ornaments; and metals, especially
bronze, used for decorative details. Architects of the Archaic and Classical periods used
these building materials to construct five simple types of buildings: religious, civic,
domestic, funerary, or recreational.

•
History

Around 600 BC, the wooden columns of the old Temple of Hera at Olympia underwent a
material transformation, known as "petrification", in which they were replaced by stone
columns. By degrees, other parts of the temple were petrified.

Most of our knowledge of Greek architecture comes from the late archaic period (550 -
500 BC), the Periclean age (450 - 430 BC), and the early to pure classical period (430 -
400 BC). Greek examples are considered alongside Hellenistic and Roman periods (since
Roman architecture heavily copied Greek), and late written sources such as Vitruvius (1st
century). This results in a strong bias towards temples, the only buildings which survive
in numbers.

Like Greek painting and sculpture, Greek Architecture in the first half of classical
antiquity was not "art for art's sake" in the modern sense. The architect was a craftsman
employed by the state or a wealthy private client. No distinction was made between the
architect and the building contractor. The architect designed the building, hired the
laborers and craftsmen who built it, and was responsible for both its budget and its timely
completion. He did not enjoy any of the lofty status accorded to modern architects of
public buildings. Even the names of architects are not known before the 5th century. An
architect like Iktinos, who designed the Parthenon, who would today be seen as a genius,
was treated in his lifetime as no more than a very valuable master tradesman.

] Structure and style of Greek temples

Temple of Hephaestus, Athens: western facade

The standard format of Greek public buildings is known from surviving examples such as
the Parthenon and the Hephaesteum at Athens, the temple complex at Selinunte (Selinus)
and the sanctuaries at Agrigentum. Most buildings were rectangular and made from
limestone or tuff, of which Greece has an abundance, and which was cut into large blocks
and dressed. Marble was an expensive building material in Greece: high quality marble
came only from Mt. Pentelicus in Attica and from a few islands such as Paros, and its
transportation in large blocks was difficult. It was used mainly for sculptural decoration,
not structurally, except in the very grandest buildings of the Classical period such as the
Parthenon.

The basic rectangular plan was surrounded by a colonnaded portico of columns on all
four sides (peripteral or peristyle) such as the Parthenon, and occasionally at the front
and rear only (amphiprostyle) as seen in the small Temple of Athena Nike. Some
buildings had a projecting head of columns forming the entrance (prostyle), while others
featured a pronaos facade of columns leading on to the cella. The Greeks roofed their
buildings with timber beams covered with overlapping terra cotta or occasionally marble
tiles. They understood the principles of the masonry arch but made little use of it, and did
not put domes on their buildings; these elaborations were left to the Romans.
The low pitch of the gable roofs produced a squat triangular shape at each end of the
building, the pediment, which was typically filled with sculptural decoration. Between
the roof and the tops of the columns a row of lintels formed the entablature, whose
outward-facing surfaces also provided a space for sculptures, known as friezes. The frieze
consisted of alternating metopes (holding the sculpture) and triglyphs. No surviving
Greek building preserves these sculptures intact, but they can be seen on some modern
imitations of Greek structures.

Greek public architecture

The temple was the most common and best-known form of Greek public architecture.
The temple did not serve the same function as a modern church, since the altar stood
under the open sky in the temenos or sacred fane, often directly before the temple.
Temples served as storage places for the treasury associated with the cult of the god in
question, as the location of a cult image, and as a place for devotees of the god to leave
their votive offerings, such as statues, helmets and weapons. The inner room of the
temple, the cella, served mainly as a strongroom and storeroom. It was usually lined by
another row of columns.

Other architectural forms used by the Greeks were the tholos or circular temple, of which
the best example is the Tholos of Theodorus at Delphi dedicated to the worship of Athena
Pronaia; the propylon or porch, forming the entrance to temple sanctuaries (the best-
surviving example is the Propylaea on the Acropolis of Athens); the fountain house, a
building where women filled their vases with water from a public fountain; and the stoa,
a long narrow hall with an open colonnade on one side, which was used to house rows of
shops in the agoras (commercial centers) of Greek towns. A completely restored stoa, the
Stoa of Attalus, can be seen in Athens. Greek towns of substantial size also had a
palaestra or a gymnasium, the social centre for male citizens. These peripterally enclosed
space open to the sky were used for athletic contests and exercise. Greek towns also
needed at least one bouleuterion or council chamber, a large public building which served
as a court house and as a meeting place for the town council (boule). Because the Greeks
did not use arches or domes, they could not construct buildings with large interior spaces.
The bouleuterion thus had rows of internal columns to hold the roof up (hypostyle). No
examples of these buildings survive.

Finally, every Greek town had a theatre. These were used for both public meetings as
well as dramatic performances. The theatre was usually set in a hillside outside the town,
and had rows of tiered seating set in a semi-circle around the central performance area,
the orchestra. Behind the orchestra was a low building called the skene, which served as a
store-room, a dressing-room, and also as a backdrop to the action taking place in the
orchestra. A number of Greek theatres survive almost intact, the best known being at
Epidaurus.] Domestic architecture

In the 5th and 4th centuries BC two standard plans became commonplace in the Greek
world. Typical houses in Olynthus during this time period and the 2nd century houses on
Delos had the small rooms of the home arranged in a rectangle plan around a colonnaded
interior courtyard. A second house plan was found in Priene which also focused on an
interior courtyard but it had much different floorplan. Instead of a collection of small
rooms, the primary living area consisted of a large rectangular hall that led to a columned
porch. Opening off the sides of the courtyard were small rooms for servants, storage, and
cooking. Houses in the Hellenistic period became much more diverse. For example,
houses of wealthy people might have featured marble thresholds, columns and doorways;
mosaic floors depicting scenes of humans or animals; and plastered walls modeled to
look much like fine stonework.

Orders of Greek architecture

There were two main styles (or "orders") of early Greek architecture, the Doric and the
Ionic. These names were used by the Greeks themselves, and reflected their belief that
the styles descended from the Dorian and Ionian Greeks of the Dark Ages, but this is
unlikely to be true. The Doric style was used in mainland Greece and spread from there to
the Greek colonies in Italy. The Ionic style was used in the cities of Ionia (now the west
coast of Turkey) and some of the Aegean islands. The Doric style was more formal and
austere, the Ionic was more relaxed and decorative. The more ornate Corinthian style was
a later development of the Ionic. These styles are best known through the three orders of
column capitals, but there are differences in most points of design and decoration
between the orders.

Most surviving Greek buildings, such as the Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus in
Athens, are Doric. The Erechtheum and the small temple of Athena Nike on the
Acropolis are Ionic however. The Ionic order became dominant in the Hellenistic period,
since its more decorative style suited the aesthetic of the period better than the more
restrained Doric. Records show that the evolution of the Ionic order was resisted by many
Greek States, as they claimed it represented the dominance of Athens. Some of the best
surviving Hellenistic buildings, such as the Library of Celsus, can be seen in Turkey, at
cities such as Ephesus and Pergamum. But in the greatest of Hellenistic cities, Alexandria
in Egypt, almost nothing survives.

The Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external Greek architecture for their
own purposes, which were so different from Greek buildings as to create a new
architectural style. The two styles are often considered one body of classical architecture.
This approach is considered reproductive,[citation needed] and sometimes it hinders scholars'
understanding and ability to judge Roman buildings by Greek standards, particularly
when relying solely on external appearances.[citation needed]

The Romans absorbed Greek influence in many aspects closely related to architecture; for
example, this can be seen in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as
a place and manner of dining. The Romans, similarly, were indebted to their Etruscan
neighbors and forefathers who supplied them with a wealth of knowledge essential for
future architectural solutions,[citation needed] such as hydraulics and in the construction of
arches.

Social elements such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient
Romans to discover new (architectural) solutions of their own. The use of vaults and
arches together with a sound knowledge of building materials, for example, helped
enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing
structures for public use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of
Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and perhaps most famously of all, the
Colosseum. They were reproduced at smaller scale in most important towns and cities in
the Empire. Some survivals are almost complete, such as the town walls of Lugo in
Hispania Tarraconensis, or northern Spain.

Political propaganda demanded that these buildings should be made to impress as well as
perform a public function.[citation needed] The Romans didn't feel restricted by Greek aesthetic
axioms alone in order to achieve these objectives.[citation needed] The Pantheon is a supreme
example of this, particularly in the version rebuilt by Hadrian and which still stands in its
celestial glory as a prototype of several other great buildings of Western architecture. The
same emperor left his mark on the landscape of northern Britain when he built a wall to
mark the limits of the empire, and after further conquests in Scotland, the Antonine wall
was built to replace Hadrian's Wall.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 The Arch and the Dome

o 1.1 Housing
o 1.2 Public buildings
o 1.3 Lighthouses
• 2 Materials
• 3 List of buildings, features and types of buildings
• 4 See also

• 5 External links

[edit] The Arch and the Dome

Further information: List of Roman domes

Aqueduct of Segovia

Roman bridge and Moorish alcazaba at Mérida, Spain

The Roman use of the arch and their improvements in the use of concrete facilitated the
building of the many aqueducts throughout the empire, such as the magnificent Aqueduct
of Segovia and the eleven aqueducts in Rome itself, such as Aqua Claudia and Anio
Novus. The same idea produced numerous bridges, such as the still used bridge at
Merida.

The dome permitted construction of vaulted ceilings and provided large covered public
spaces such as the public baths and basilicas. The Romans based much of their
architecture on the dome, such as Hadrian's Pantheon in the city of Rome, the Baths of
Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla.

Remains of the baths of Diocletian, Rome. Etching made by Etienne_Du_Pérac in the

16th century.

Art historians such as Gottfried Richter in the 20's identified the Roman architectural
innovation as being the Triumphal Arch and it is poignant to see how this symbol of
power on earth was transformed and utilised within the Christian basilicas when the
Roman Empire of the West was on its last legs: The arch was set before the altar to
symbolize the triumph of Christ and the after life. It is in their impressive aqueducts that
we see the arch triumphant, especially in the many surviving examples, such as the Pont
du Gard, the aqueduct at Segovia and the remains of the Aqueducts of Rome itself. Their
survival is testimony to the durability of their materials and design.

[edit] Housing

Remains of the top floors of an insula near the Capitolium and the Aracoeli in Rome.

On a less visible level for the modern observer, ancient Roman developments in housing
and public hygiene are impressive, especially given their day and age. Clear examples are
baths and latrines which could be either public or private, not to mention developments in
under-floor heating, in the form of the hypocaust, double glazing (examples in Ostia
Antica) and piped water (examples in Pompeii).

Possibly most impressive from an urban planning point of view were the multi-story
apartment blocks called insulae built to cater for a wide range of situations. These
buildings solely intended as large scale accommodation could reach several floors in
height. Although they were often dangerous, unhealthy and prone to fires there are
examples in cities such as the Roman port town of Ostia which date back to the reign of
Trajan and point to solutions which catered for a variety of needs and markets.

As an example of this we have the housing on Via della Foce: large scale real estate
development made to cater for up-and-coming middle class entrepreneurs. Rather like
modern semi-detached housing these had repeated floor plans intended to be easily and
economically built in a repetitive fashion. Internal spaces were designed to be relatively
low-cost yet functional and with decorative elements reminiscent of the detached houses
and villas to which the buyers might aspire in their later years. Each apartment had its
own terrace and private entrance. External walls were in "Opus Reticulatum" whilst
interiors in "Opus Incertum" which would then be plastered and possibly painted. Some
existing examples show alternate red and yellow painted panels to have been a relatively
popular choice of interior decor.

[edit] Public buildings

Roman arena at Arles, inside view.

Roman architecture was sometimes determined based upon the requirements of Roman
religion. For example the Pantheon was an amazing engineering feat created for religious
purposes, and its design (the large dome and open spaces) were made to fit the
requirements of the religious services. Some of the most impressive public buildings are
the amphitheatres, over 220 being known and many of which are well preserved, such as
that at Arles, as well as the progenitor, the Coliseum in Rome. They were used for
gladiatorial contests, public displays, public meetings and bullfights, the last of which
survives in Spain. They are among the most impressive remains of the Roman empire at
its height, and many of them still used for public displays and performance.

[edit] Lighthouses

Tower of Hercules

Many lighthouses were built around the Mediterranean and around the shores of their
expanding empire, including the Tower of Hercules at A Coruña in northern Spain, a
structure which still survives to this day. The most spectacular example was the Pharos or
Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven wonders of the World, which collapsed
during an earthquake many centuries after construction. It was originally built by the
Greeks in the 3rd century BC, and served as a model for later Roman examples. A smaller
lighthouse at Dover, England also still exists as a ruin about half the height of the
original. The light would have been provided by a fire at the top of the structure.

[edit] Materials

Innovation started in the first century BC, with the invention of concrete, a strong and
readily available substitute for stone. Tile-covered concrete quickly supplanted marble as
the primary building material and more daring buildings soon followed, with great pillars
supporting broad arches and domes rather than dense lines of columns suspending flat
architraves. The freedom of concrete also inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely
decorative columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale architecture,
concrete's strength freed the floor plan from rectangular cells to a more free-flowing
environment. Most of these developments are ably described by Vitruvius writing in the
first century AD in his work De Architectura.

The interior of the Pantheon in the 18th century, showing the concrete dome

Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in Mesopotamia, Roman architects
perfected it and used it in buildings where it could stand on its own and support a great
deal of weight. The first use of concrete by the Romans was in the town of Cosa
sometime after 273 BC. Ancient Roman concrete (opus cementicium) was a mixture of
lime mortar, sand, water, and stones. The ancient builders placed these ingredients in
wooden frames where it hardened and bonded to a facing of stones or (more frequently)
bricks. When the framework was removed, the new wall was very strong with a rough
surface of bricks or stones. This surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive
stucco or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones called revetment. Concrete
construction proved to be more flexible and less costly than building solid stone
buildings. The materials were readily available and not difficult to transport. The wooden
frames could be used more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and efficiently.

Cave canem mosaics ('Beware of the Dog') were a popular motif for the threshold of
Roman villas.

On return from campaigns in Greece, the general Sulla returned with what is probably the
most well-known element of the early imperial period: the mosaic, a decoration of
colourful chips of stone inset into cement. This tiling method took the empire by storm in
the late first century and the second century and in the Roman home joined the well
known mural in decorating floors, walls, and grottoes in geometric and pictorial designs.

Though most would consider concrete the Roman contribution most relevant to the
modern world, the Empire's style of architecture, though no longer used with any great
frequency, can still be seen throughout Europe and North America in the arches and
domes of many governmental and religious buildings.

[edit] List of buildings, features and types of

buildings

• Alyscamps, a necropolis in Arles, France

• Amphitheatre - (List of Roman amphitheatres)
• Antonine Wall, in Scotland
• Aqueduct
• Basilica
• Baths of Trajan
• Baths of Diocletian
• Baths of Caracalla
 • Catacombs of Rome
• Colosseum
• Circus Maximus, in Rome, Italy - (Circus (building))
• Curia Hostilia (Senate House), in Rome
• Domus
• Domus Aurea (former building)
• Forum
• Hadrian's Wall
• Hypocaust
• Insulae
• Maison Carrée, in Nimes, France
• mosaics
• Pantheon
• Roman aqueducts
• Roman bridge
• Roman engineering
• Roman lighthouse
• Roman road
• Roman theatre
• Roman villa

• Temple (Roman)
• Thermae
• Tower of Hercules
• Trajan's Column, in Rome
• Triumphal arch
• Tropaeum Traiani
• Hadrian's Villa

[edit] See also

• Architectural history
• Architectural style
• Frontinus
• Impluvium
• Naturalis Historia
• Opus
• Pliny the Elder
• Roman brick
• Roman culture
• Roman engineering
• Romanesque architecture
• Vitruvius
 HISTORY OF EARLY CHRISTIAN, BYZANTINE
ARCHITECTURE

SANT' APOLINARE IN CLASSE

:Sant' Apolinare in Classe; Italy, Ravenna; 530-549

SAN VITALE
:San Vitale; Italy, Ravenna; 526-547

HISTORY OF EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE

Tour Armenia

Armenia is often called an "open-air museum", since there is so much of history around you, it
seems that nothing you see or touch is from the modern era (OK, we’ll make exceptions for the
shiny new boutiques and electronic shops springing up all over Yerevan--but even they are
descended from the old world of and the Spice and Silk Roads).

The number sacred monuments (churches, monasteries, chapels, shrines and Khachkars, or
stone crosses) is truly mind-boggling.; There are more than 5,000 churches, monasteries and
chapels in Armenia, and over 20,000 Khachkars in the small territory of the Republic alone!

After a while, seeing all those churches and stone crosses can make the visitor kind of bleary-
eyed, especially those who don’t understand their special meaning, and the traditions from
whence they came.; Basically all the same in central design, none are the same in their details,
and it possible to detect earlier Urartian, Hellenistic, Roman, Persian and Arab influences on the
design over successive centuries, which make them living museums of the past, and a lot more
interesting to see. There are even holdovers’ from Armenia’s most ancient past, in stone carvings
representing the zodiac, sun dials, and iconography from her animist and sun worship pagan
traditions making their way into the church ornamentation.
But a little architecture primer is required to better appreciate the distinct character of the
churches.; And believe me, with this primer you will know more than the average local Armenian,
and very likely more than even visiting Armenians from the outside world, about the sacred
architecture in Armenia.; Nothing like being able to knock off a few facts to impress the rest of the
group, eh?

Early Churches
The earliest churches were built on pagan temples. The designs and forms were borrowed from
the Greco-Roman styles, which relied on volume (taking up space) with carefully orchestrated
combinations of vertical and horizontal lines in the columns, on the carvings and the friezes to
differentiate the building from those around it.; The temple of Garni is a good example of the type
of sacred building that existed throughout Armenia before the advent of Christianity.; Another is
the temple of Sushi at Erebuni, an Urartian fortress city unearthed in Yerevan.; Urartu borrowed
deities and cuneiform from the Mesopotamian region (Assyria and Babylon) and used human-
animal combination in its representations of gods, as well as a type of frieze design that looks a
bit like that found in Mycenae and Assyria.; The friezes made their way to Christianity in the form
of frescoes (translated through the Greco-Roman friezes and mosaics).; But the ideas of using
animals to represent gods and their likeness, or combining animal and human forms (winged
angels, Lion, eagle, the lamb) are very old symbols from the pagan era, which survive to the
present day.

At the very first, simple crosses were erected on the sites where a pagan temple was located and
that was enough.; As the crusade to convert the pagan population gained momentum, the fervor
with which Gregory and his army destroyed the pagan temples increased, and new "temples" or
churches were built on the same foundations of the pagan ones, which dictated their size and
first designs.; One of the things you will notice about almost Armenian churches is that they are
small.; The largest church might fit 500 worshippers if they stand shoulder to shoulder, perhaps
more, but they are not the spacious and awe-inspiring gothic cathedrals from Europe.; This is
both a limitation in early engineering (flying buttresses still have a few hundred years of
development), but also a deliberate device to at the same time imitate the style of the prior pagan
temple, and then renew it with a completely different iconography--meaning to keep the smaller
size of pagan temples (which were only intended for the elect priests and royalty--not that many
in the population), and at the same time to extend it both up and out to allow an unheard of idea
to admit more worshippers into the sanctuary.

You can detect the basic outlines of pagan temples within the sanctuary itself, a rectangular or
square space, the altar always oriented towards the East (a pagan tradition completely usurped
by early Christians).; From there, the form changes radically, and; Medieval Armenians
developed a unique type of construction, which found its way to the Byzantine empire and
Europe.

The development of sacred architecture in Armenia can be divided into three important periods;
1) Formative, from the 4th to the 7th cc. CE,; 2) Mature, from the 9th to the 14th cc, and 3) Late,
from the 15th to the 19th cc.; These also coincide with the Early, Middle and Late Medieval
periods of Armenian history.
;

The vision of Saint Gregory and early Armenian Churches

The new style of church is attributed to the vision of St. Gregory, where the saint received
annunciation of the site where four churches were to be built; three Martyria (shrines in honor of
martyrs of the faith; two of which where to be dedicated to the Virgins Hripsimeh and Guyaneh),
and the future cathedral of Vagharshapat (present day Echmiadzin), for which the form was also
dictated: a cupola (or 'tent') supported by four columns.
An historian of the struggle for Christianity in Armenia, the 5th c.; Agathangelos describes the
vision with a brief description of heaven, earth and the void.; Heaven is domed (khoranard), with
a firm roof (khoran), suspended in the void.; Khoran occurs several hundred times in the
Armenian bible, and is one of the key terms used in Armenian architectural symbolism.

Legend had it that from the moment of the vision forward, the church had received its instructions
from God on how to create the new temples.; But the cathedral of Echmiadzin is not the first
cathedral or church built by Grigor.; It was preceded by the church at Ashtishat, which Grigor had
built in Western Armenia, on the site of the temple of Vahagan (the god of war in the Armenian
pagan pantheon), where the relics of Saint John the Baptist and of the martyr Athenogenes were
buried.

The official missionary work of St. Gregory led to the systematic demolition of many temples.; At
first crosses were placed where they had stood, but later steles, altars and Christian churches
were built to replace them.; As these churches were enhanced, designs based on Early
Armenian, Roman and Hellenistic designs were used, but within 100 years the churches took a
shape all their own, one which is distinctively Armenian.

What To Look For

As early as the beginning of the 7th century Armenian architecture had achieved such a high
level of completeness that the same 'language', with very few modifications, can be seen in the
centuries to follow.; Central plan layout, and the systematic use of stone cupolas for the middle
spans of churches became integral features of design.

This earlier roots can be seen in the technique of erecting pure volumes of large longitudinal
edifices atop stylobates with large steps, similar to that of the pagan temples: the rigorous design
of the large central dome churches, which take on the solemnity of the mausoleum of the
classical era, also in the use of the compact masonry of large, well-cut and precisely-laid blocks,
in the masterful orchestration and proportioning of spaces delimited by arcades and rounded
vaults, and in the use of stylistic systems and elements closely related to those of; Hellenistic
architecture.
;

Church Forms
The earliest form is the single nave barrel vaulted hall with an polygonal or semicircular apse.;
Very close in form to pagan temple designs, the churches are huge volumes of mass which
imitate their pagan predecessors. Additions to this basic form were the installation of open-air
baptismal fonts and adding chapels on flanking sides of the main altar with repeated chapels in
all the corners of the rectangular floor plan.; Examples are St. Hripsimeh in Echmiadzin (5th-6th
cc); St. Astvatsatsin of Aragiugh (5th-7th cc); and St. Astvatsatsin of Avan (5th-6th cc).

Along with the single nave form, there developed a central form design, which was first
implemented by Gregory the Illuminator between 301-313 CE in Echmiadzin:; a domed church
with a single quadruple apse and four angular chapels.; In 484-488 CE the floor plan was
modified to a central form with protruding apses and two chapels flanking the main altar.; This
type of church became know as the "Echmiadzin-Bagarin" style.; Examples of this early form are
at St. Hovhannes at Mastara (5th-6th cc), St. Sarkis in Talin (7th c),; at Voskepar (7th c.) and St.
Grigor of Haridjavank (7th c.).;; Advanced forms of this style, which include cylindrical internal
diagonal niches and external triangular niches, are Okhte Dernin Vank of Mokhrenis (5th-6th cc),
St. Hovhannes in Avan (618 CE) and Hripsimeh of Echmiadzin (618 CE).

Attempts to harmonize these two forms began in the 5th-6th cc, with domed constructions of the
single nave Poghos Petros church in Zuvuni; and the St. Sarkis triple nave basilica in Tekor.; This
experiment signaled the birth of the domed hall and the triple nave basilica (the 5th c. Katoghikeh
of Dvin, and the 630 CE Guyaneh of Echmiadzin and 7th c. Odzun).

Cruciform churches developed into single, triple or quadruple apses such as St. Stepanos of
L'mbatavank (7th c.).

The most unique form of church in this period is that built with a central circular floor plan.; A first
magnificent example of this construction is the Royal Cathedral of Zvartnots, as well as St.
Yerordutiun (6th-7th c) and St. Tadeos Zoravar in Yeghvard (7th c.).

Martyria and Mausoleums

The influence of the Romans is found Martyria, an extension of the mausoleum.; Among the
Romans veneration of the dead demanded tolerance of the practice of burial, which extended to
both Christian and Jewish burial rites.; Roman custom and law dictated that the relatives of
executed criminals had the right to bury the victim: death was thought to somehow redeem the
offender (whose crime, in many cases, was simply that of being a Christian or a Jew).

Catacombs, borrowed by the first Christians from Roman Jews, was not only tolerated by the
authorities; the areas where the catacombs were located were even considered inviolable (at
least until the 3d century, when special laws removed this protection).; The construction of
chapels in the cubical offered the Christians an opportunity to assemble and pray.

Mausoleums were built on two levels, the ground floor reserved for the interned, with a chapel or
church built on the upper floor.; Monuments to the dead are very close to Roman monuments,
also to the tradition Christians adopted from the ancient Semitic tradition in Mesopotamia
regarding the individual construction of tombs, cut into rock, or partially or completely excavated
below ground level.; These were usually chambers with a square base, of different sizes, with
niches on three sides (for one or more corpses), and a staircase for access from ground level.;
The entrance usually featured a facade preceding an antechamber.

In Armenia these structures can be found including the Martyria Guyaneh and Hripsimeh at
Echmiadzin, over which the apses of the churches built in later periods are built.; The martyria of
Hripsimeh was reconstructed in two phases, in the place of a two-story structure, represented on
the eastern side of the southern stele.

Another is the 5th century memorial monument beside the cathedral of Odzun. The monument at
Odzun is two storied, quite similar to that of the stele of Aghudi (Sissian region). This kind of
memorial monument, after its re-introduction onto the Armenian scene in the 11th; century (the
funeral chapel of St. Stepanos in Tzakhatz Kar, Yeghegnadzor region , and the steeple of St.
Astvatsatsin, at the entrance of the convent of Tatev in Goris region) became particularly
widespread, especially during the 14th century when the library at Goshavank (Dilijan region ),
and the funeral chapels of Yeghvard (Ashtarak region) and Amaghiu Noravank (Yeghegnadzor
region ) were constructed.

Monasteries
Beginning at the end of the 9th c., monastery complexes began to evolve around churches
throughout Armenia.; These quickly became important centers of learning and religious training.;
As the demands for monastic communities increased (spiritual, educational, scientific, manuscript
copying, etc.) there developed a specific architectural style.; These are the gavitner ("narthex", a
portico or lobby to the main hall), zhamatuner (parsonages), shanatuner (refectories),
divanatuner (archives), matenadaran (monastery library) and bell towers.;; Gavits have perhaps
the most interesting architecture: a square floor plan with two to four pillars supporting a cross-
vaulted roof.; Light was provided through an opening in the dome.; The domes were often
elaborately carved in geometric patterns that actually enhanced the strength of the supporting
structure.; Examples are found at Sanahin, Goshavank, Haghartsin, Makaravank and
Saghmosavank.

HISTORY OF RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE

S. MARIA DEL FIORE
:S. Maria del Fiore, Italy, Firenze; 1296- ,Dome=1418-1436; Dome=Filippo Brunelleschi

OSPDALE DEGLI INNOCENTI

: Ospdale degli Innocenti, Italy, Firenze; 1421-24, by Filippo Brunelleschi at 1219

CAPPELLA DEI PAZZI

: Cappella dei Pazzi, S. Croce, Firenze, Italy; 1430-61 byFilippo Brunelleschi

SANT SPIRITO
:Sant Spirito; Italy, firenze; 1436-1482; Filippo Burunelleschi ﾐ ÝŒv

PALAZZO MEDICI-RICCARDI
:Palazzo Medici-Riccardi; Italy, Florence; 1444-59; Michelozzo di Bartolommeo

PALAZZO PITTI
: Palazzo Pitti, Italy, Firenze; 1458-1783; by Brunelleschi, Ammannati and others.

SAN FRANCESCO (Tempio Malatestiano)

: San Francesco (Tempio Malatestiano), Rimini, Italy; by Leon Battista Alberti, Matteo
de'Pasti, Agostino di Dccio; 1446-68
SANT' ANDREA
:Sant' Andrea, Italy, Mantova; 1472-1494; Leon Battista Alberti

S. MARIA NOVELLA
:S.Maria Novella; Italy, Firenze; 1471-1512; Leon Battista Alberti

TEMPIETTO OF SAN PIETRO IN MONTORIO

: Tempietto, S.Pietro in Montorio; Italy, Roma; 1502-10; by Donato Bramante

S. MARIA DELLA PACE (Cloister)

: S. Maria della Pace (Cloister), Roma, Italy; 1500-04; by Donato Bramante

PALAZZO VIDONI-CAFFARELLI
: Palazzo Vidoni-Caffarelli, Roma, Italy; 1515??; by Raffaello Sanzio??

PALAZZO FARNESEE
:Palazzo Farnese; Italy, Roma; 1530-1546; Antonio da Sangallo il giovane, Michelangelo
Buonarroti
CHATEAU DE BLOIS
:Chateau de Blois; France; 1515-25

S. PIETRO (MICHELANGELO, OTHERS)

:S.Pietro; Italy, Roma; -1564, dome 1587-89, Michelangelo Buonarroti 1606-24, Carlo
Maderna

Baroque architecture, starting in the early 17th century in Italy, took the humanist
Roman vocabulary of Renaissance architecture and used it in a new rhetorical, theatrical,
sculptural fashion, expressing the triumph of absolutist church and state. New
architectural concerns for color, light and shade, sculptural values and intensity
characterize the Baroque. But whereas the Renaissance drew on the wealth and power of
the Italian courts, and was a blend of secular and religious forces, the Baroque was,
initially at least, directly linked to the Counter-Reformation, a movement within the
Catholic Church to reform itself in response to the Protestant Reformation. The Council
of Trent (1545–1563) is usually given as the beginning of the Counter-Reformation.

The Baroque played into the demand for an architecture that was on the one hand more
accessible to the emotions and, on the other hand, a visible statement of the wealth and
power of the Church. The new style manifested itself in particular in the context of new
religious orders, like the Theatines and the Jesuits, which aimed to improve popular piety.
By the middle of the 17th century, the Baroque style had found its secular expression in
the form of grand palaces, first in France—as in the Château de Maisons (1642) near
Paris by François Mansart—and then throughout Europe.
Giacomo della Porta's façade of the Church of the Gesù, a precursor of Baroque
architecture

Precursors and features of Baroque architecture

Notre-Dame de Québec Basilica-Cathedral

Elector's Palace in Trier (Germany)

Santa Susanna: Carlo Maderno

Sicilian Baroque: San Benedetto in Catania

Michelangelo's late Roman buildings, particularly St. Peter's Basilica, may be considered
precursors of Baroque architecture, as the design of the latter achieves a colossal unity
that was previously unknown. His pupil Giacomo della Porta continued this work in
Rome, particularly in the façade of the Jesuit church Il Gesu, which leads directly to the
most important church façade of the early Baroque, Santa Susanna by Carlo Maderno. In
the 17th century, the Baroque style spread through Europe and Latin America, where it
was particularly promoted by the Jesuits.

Important features of Baroque architecture include:

• long, narrow naves are replaced by broader, occasionally circular forms

• dramatic use of light, either strong light-and-shade contrasts, chiaroscuro effects
(e.g. church of Weltenburg Abbey), or uniform lighting by means of several
windows (e.g. church of Weingarten Abbey)
• opulent use of ornaments (puttos made of wood (often gilded), plaster or stucco,
marble or faux finishing)
• large-scale ceiling frescoes
• the external façade is often characterized by a dramatic central projection
• the interior is often no more than a shell for painting and sculpture (especially in
the late Baroque)
• illusory effects like trompe l'oeil and the blending of painting and architecture
• in the Bavarian, Czech, Polish, and Ukrainian Baroque, pear domes are ubiquitous
• Marian and Holy Trinity columns are erected in Catholic countries, often in
thanksgiving for ending a plague

Modern architecture is a term given to a number of building styles with similar

characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. The
style was conceived early in the 20th century. Modern architecture was adopted by many
influential architects and architectural educators, however very few "Modern buildings"
were built in the first half of the century. It gained popularity after the Second World War
and became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings for
three decades.

The exact characteristics and origins of Modern architecture are still open to
interpretation and debate.

History
Origins

Some historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied
to the project of Modernity and thus the Enlightenment. The Modern style developed, in
their opinion, as a result of social and political revolutions.[1]

Melnikov House near Arbat Street in Moscow by Konstantin Melnikov.

Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering

developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron,
steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the
Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his
'fireproof' design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such
construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to
accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a
construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s
that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron
construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape
of northern Britain, leading to the description of places like Manchester and parts of West
Yorkshire as "Dark satanic mills".

The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early
example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of
the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis
Sullivan. Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural
expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright's
Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum,
built from 1926 near Basel, Switzerland.

Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and
the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau. Note that the
Russian word for Art Nouveau, "Модерн", and the Spanish word for Art Nouveau,
"Modernismo" are cognates of English word "Modern" though they carry different
meanings.
Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began
developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for
instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank
Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto
Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can
be seen as a common struggle between old and new. An early use of the term in print
around this time, approaching its later meaning, was in the title of a book by Otto
Wagner.[2][3]

A key organization that spans the ideals of the Arts and Crafts and Modernism as it
developed in the 1920s was the Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation) a
German association of architects, designers and industrialists. It was founded in 1907 in
Munich at the instigation of Hermann Muthesius. Muthesius was the author of a three-
volume "The English House" of 1905, a survey of the practical lessons of the English
Arts and Crafts movement and a leading political and cultural commentator.[4] The
purpose of the Werkbund was to sponsor the attempt to integrate traditional crafts with
the techniques of industrial mass production. The organization originally included twelve
architects and twelve business firms, but quickly expanded. The architects include Peter
Behrens, Theodor Fischer (who served as its first president), Josef Hoffmann and Richard
Riemerschmid. Joseph August Lux, an Austrian-born critic, helped formulate its
agenda.[5]

[edit] Modernism as dominant style

By the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their
reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and
Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and
associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.

Frank Lloyd Wright's career parallels and influences the work of the European
modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with
them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well
as on the whole of organic architecture.

In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modern
Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell
Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically
similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International style.

This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the
Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design,
and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a
dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial
architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the
profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.
Marina City (left) and IBM Plaza (right) in Chicago.

Architects who worked in the International style wanted to break with architectural
tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials
are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior
supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the
design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations
headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram
Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and
Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard
Neutra) in Los Angeles.

Detractors of the International style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular
geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as "machines for
living", but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in
machines. Even Philip Johnson admitted he was "bored with the box." Since the early
1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs,
towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began
experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-
century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and
playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects
and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.

Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement
occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was
universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a
"style" that threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the
1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in
1941), could begin "At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary
architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion." At the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question "Modern
Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?" In New York, the coup d'état appeared to
materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central
Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of "air rights",[6] In
criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglass Haskell it was seen to "sever" the Park
Avenue streetscape and "tarnish" the reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter
Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and the builders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of
postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the
1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism; however,
postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or
hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part
of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-
evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial
contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural
design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be
dominated by a traditional aesthetic.

The Architecture of the Philippines is a reflection of the history and heritage of the
Philippines. The various architecture found in the country is influenced by Malay,
Hindu,Chinese, colonial Spanish, American and Filipino cultures.

The pre-colonial architecture of the Philippines consisted of the Nipa hut made from
natural materials. A great variety of the Nipa hut exists over the Philippines.

During three hundred years of Spanish colonialization the philippine architecture was
dominated by the Spanish culture. During this period Intramurous, the walled city, of
Manila, was built with its walls, houses, churches and fortresses. The Augustinian friars
built a large number of grand churches all over the Philippine Islands. During this period
the traditional Filipino "Bahay na Bato" style for the large mansion emerged. These were
large houses built of stone and wood combining Filipino, Spanish and Chinese style
elements. The best preserved examples of these houses can be found in Vigan , Ilocos Sur
and Taal, Batangas.

After the Spanish American war the architecture of the Philippines was dominated by the
American style. In this period the plan for the modern city of Manila was designed, with
a large number of art deco buildings, by famous American and Filipino architects. During
the liberation of Manila by the Americans in 1945 large portions of Intramurous and
Manila were destroyed. In the period after the second world war many of the destroyed
buildings were rebuilt.

At the end of the twentiest century modern architecture with straight lines and functional
aspects was introduced. During this period many of the older structures fell into decay.
Early in the 21st Century a revival of the respect for the traditional Filipino elements in
the architecture returned.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Pre-colonial
• 2 Colonial Spanish
o 2.1 Bahay na Bato
o 2.2 Fort Santiago
o 2.3 Intramuros
o 2.4 Paco Park
o 2.5 Augustinian Churches
o 2.6 Lighthouses
• 3 The 20th Century
o 3.1 American architecture
o 3.2 The National Monument to Dr. Jose Rizal
o 3.3 Standalone movie theaters of the Philippines
o 3.4 Examples of Filipino Architecture
 3.4.1 Parish of the Holy Sacrifice
 3.4.2 Bahay Kubo mansion
 3.4.3 Antipolo Church
• 4 Professional Organization and Architects
o 4.1 United Architects of the Philippines
o 4.2 Architects
• 5 External links

• 6 References

[edit] Pre-colonial

Prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, the main form of dwelling for a family in the
Philippines was the nipa hut, a single room house composed of wood, bamboo or other
native materials. Though the styles of the nipa hut varied throughout the country, most all
of them shared similar characteristics including having it raised slightly above ground on
stilts and a steep roof. Aside from nipa huts, other small houses were built on top of trees
to prevent animal as well as enemy attacks.

[edit] Colonial Spanish

Spanish colonization introduced European architecture into the country. The influence of
European architecture and its style actually came via the Antilles through the Manila
Galleon. The most lasting legacy of Spain in terms of architecture was its colonial
churches which were designed by anonymous friar.

In this era, the nipa hut or Bahay Kubo gave way to the Bahay na Bato (stone house) and
became the typical house of noble Filipinos. The Bahay na Bato followed the nipa hut's
arrangements such as open ventilation and elevated apartments. The most obvious
difference between the two houses would be the materials that was used to build them.
The Bahay na Bato was constructed out of brick and stone rather than the traditional
bamboo materials.

[edit] Bahay na Bato

The Bahay Na Bato, the Colonian Filipino House, is a mixture of native Filipino, Spanish
and Chinese influences. In Vigan, Ilocos Sur, excellently preserved examples of the
houses of the noble Filipinos can be admired. In Taal, Batangas, the main street is still
ligned with examples of the tradional Filipino homes.

[edit] Fort Santiago

The front entrance of Fuerza de Santiago towering 40 metres high

Fort Santiago (Fuerza de Santiago) is a defense fortress built for Spanish conquistador,
Miguel López de Legazpi. The fort is part of the structures of the walled city of
Intramuros, in Manila, Philippines.

The location of Fort Santiago was also once the site of the palace and kingdom of Rajah
Suliman, chieftain of Manila of pre-Spanish era. It was destroyed by the conquistadors
upon arriving in 1570, encountering several bloody battles with the Muslims and native
Tagalogs. The Spaniards destroyed the native settlements and erected Fuerza de Santiago
in 1571.

[edit] Intramuros

Intramuros, located along the southern bank of the Pasig River, was built by the
Spaniards in the 16th century and is the oldest district of the city of Manila. Its name,
taken from the Latin, intra muros, literally "Within the walls", meaning within the wall
enclosure of the city/fortress, also describes its structure as it is surrounded by thick, high
walls and moats. During the Spanish colonial period, Intramuros was considered Manila
itself.

[edit] Paco Park

Paco Park was planned as a municipal cemetery for the well-off and established
aristocratic Spanish families who resided in the old Manila, or the city within the walls of
Intramuros during the Spanish colonial era.

Most of the wealthy families interred the remains of their loved ones inside the municipal
cemetery in what was once the district of Dilao (former name for Paco). The cemetery
was built in the late 1700s but was completed several decades later and in 1822, the
cemetery was used to inter victims of a cholera epidemic that swept across the city.
The cemetery is circular in shape, with an inner circular fort that was the original
cemetery and with the niches that were placed or located within the hollow walls. As the
population continued to grow, a second outer wall was built with the thick adobe walls
were hollowed as niches and the top of the walls were made into pathways for
promenades.

A Roman Catholic chapel was built inside the walls of the Paco Park and it was dedicated
to St. Pancratius.

[edit] Augustinian Churches

San Augustine church Paoay, Ilocos Norte, July 2005

The order of the Augustinians,Augustinian Province of the Most Holy Name of Jesus of
the Philippines, build many churches all over the Philippines. These magnificent
structures can still be found all over the Phlippine Islands. The Augustinian historians
Fathers Policarpo F. Hernández and Pedro G. Galende,coffetable book "Angels in Stone"
documents all the churches built by the Augustinians throughout the Philippines over the
centuries.

The San Augustine church in Paoay, Ilocos Norte, is the most famous of these churches.
This unique specimen of Filipino architecture from the Spanish area has been included in
the World Heritage Sites List of the Unesco.The church was built by the Augustinian
friars from 1694 until 1710.It shows the earthquake proof baroque style architecture.

The interior of the San Agustín Church in Intramuros, with magnificent trompe l'oeil
mural on its ceiling and walls

San Agustín Church and Monastery, built between 1587 and 1606, is one of the oldest
churches in the Philippines, and the only building left intact after the destruction of
Intramuros during the Battle of Manila (1945). The present structure is actually the third
to stand on the site and has survived seven major earthquakes, as well as the wars in
Manila. The church remains under the care of the Augustinians who founded it.

The San Agustín Church lies inside the walled city of Intramuros located in the capital
city Manila, Philippines. It is the first European stone church to be built in the Philippines
designed in Spanish architectural structure. The church also houses the legacies of the
Spanish conquistadors, Miguel López de Legazpi, Juan de Salcedo and Martín de Goiti
who are buried and laid to rest in a tomb, underneath the church.

The church has 14 side chapels and a trompe-l'oeil ceiling. Up in the choir loft are the
hand-carved 17th-century seats of molave, a beautiful tropical hardwood. Adjacent to the
church is a small museum run by the Augustinian order, featuring antique vestments,
colonial furniture, and religious paintings and icons.
Together with three other ancient churches in the country, it was designated as part of the
World Heritage Site "Baroque Churches of the Philippines" in 1993.

[edit] Lighthouses

Cape Bojeador Lighthouse

During the Spanish and American Area many lighthouses were constructed around the
Phlippine Islands. The most Northeastern Lighthouse can be found in Burgos, Ilocos
Norte. An overview of Philippine lighthouses can be found through this link

[edit] The 20th Century

[edit] American architecture

After the Spanish American war in 1898 the Americans took over rule of the Philippines
until after the second world war. During this period the Americans constructed many Art
Nouveaux buildings in Manila. In 1902 Judge William Howard Taft was appointed to
head the Philippine Commission to evaluate the needs of the new territory. Taft, who later
became the Philippines' first civilian Governor-General,[1] decided that Manila, the
capital, should be a planned town. He hired as his architect and city planner Daniel
Hudson Burnham, who had built Union Station and the post office in Washington. In
Manila, Mr. Burnham had in mind a long wide, tree-lined boulevard along the bay,
beginning at a park area dominated by a magnificent hotel. To design, what is now known
as, the Manila Hotel Taft hired William E. Parsons, a New York architect, who envisioned
an impressive, but comfortable hotel, along the lines of a California mission, but
grander.[2] The original design was an H-shaped plan that focused on well-ventilated
rooms on two wings, providing grand vistas of the harbor, the Luneta, and Intramuros.
The top floor was, in fact, a large viewing deck that was used for various functions,
including watching the American navy steam into the harbor.[3]

Many of these buildings were heavily damaged during the Battle of Manila in 1945. After
the second world war many were rebuilt. Many buildings in Manila were designed by the
Filipino architect Juan M. de Guzman Arellano.

In 1911 the Army core of Engineers constructed the Manila Army and Navy Club at the
shore of Manila Bay bordering the Luneta Park. The building consisits of a Grand
entrance and has three stories that housed the various function rooms and the Hotel
rooms. It has been in use far into the eighties however it has fallen into dacay and is in
need of restoration.

At T.M. Kalaw Street stands on of the remaining structures that survivied the liberation of
Manila in 1945 , the "Luneta Hotel." The Hotel was completed in 1918 . According to
study by Dean Joseph Farnandez of the University of Santo Thomas the hotel was
designed by the Spanish architect-engineer Salvador Farre. The structure is the only
remaining example of the French Renaissance architecture with Filipino stylized beaux
arts in the Phlippines to date. This famous landmark fell gradually into decay. In 2007 the
renovation activities have started and it is hoped that this building will be restored to its
old grandeur.

Metropolitan Theater Manila August 2006

The Manila Metropolitan Theatre is an art deco building designed by the Filipino
architect Juan M. de Guzman Arellano, and built in 1935. During the liberation of Manila
by the Americans in 1945, the theatre we totally destroyed. After reconstruction by the
Americans it gradually fell into disuse in the 1960’s. In the following decade it was
meticulously restored but again fell into decay. Recently a bus station has been
constructed at the back of the theatre. The City of Manila is planning a renovation of this
once magnificent building.

The sculptures in the façade of the Theatre are from the Italian sculptor Francesco
Riccardo Monti, who lived in Manila from 1930 until his death in 1958, and worked
closely together with J.M. de Guzman Arellano. Highly stylized relief carving of
Philippine plants executed by the artist Isabelo Tampingco decorate the lobby walls and
interior surfaces of the building.

In 1940 the Jai Alai building was constructed along Taft avenue, designed by architect
Welton Becket. It has been built in the Philippine Art Deco style. In addition to the Jai
Alai game it included the famous " Sky Lounge". Unfortunately, demolition began on
July 15, 2000 on the orders of Mayor Lito Atienza. The building is now gone for ever.

The Far Eastern University (FEU) was awarded the UNESCO Heritage Award in 2005
for being the only preserved and enduring Art Deco structure in the Philippines. Although
the FEU was totally damaged during World War II, the university was restored to its
original Art Deco design in the American Period. [1]

[edit] The National Monument to Dr. Jose Rizal

the national monument to Dr. Jose Rizal

The bronze and granite Rizal monument located in Rizal Park, Manila, has long been
considered among the most famous sculptural landmarks in the Philippines. The
monument is located near the very spot where Dr. Jose Rizal was executed December 30,
1896.

On 28 September 1901, the Philippine Assembly approved Act No. 243, “granting the
right to use public land upon the Luneta in the city of Manila” where a monument shall
be erected to Jose Rizal.” As conceived by the Act, the monument would not merely
consist of a statue, but also a mausoleum to house Rizal’s remains. A Committee on the
Rizal Mausoleum consisting of Poblete, Paciano Rizal (the hero’s brother), Juan Tuason,
Teodoro R. Yangco, Mariano Limjap, Dr. Maximo Paterno, Ramon Genato, Tomas G. del
Rosario and Dr. Ariston Bautista was created. The members were tasked, among others,
with raising funds through popular subscriptions. The estimated cost of the monument
was P100,000. By January 1905, that goal had been oversubscribed. When the campaign
closed in August 1912, the amount collected had reached P135,195.61 More than twelve
years after the Philippine Assembly approved Act No. 243, the shrine was finally
unveiled on December 30, 1913 during Rizal’s 17th death anniversary.

The Rizal Monument in Luneta was the work of a Swiss sculptor named Richard
Kissling. Kissling was only the second placer in the international art competition held
between 1905 – 1907 for the monument design. The first-prize winner was Professor
Carlos Nicoli of Carrara, Italy. His scaled plaster model titled “Al Martir de
Bagumbayan” (To the Martyr of Bagumbayan) bested 40 other accepted entries. Among
his plans were the use of marble from Italy (in contrast to the unpolished granite now at
Luneta) and the incorporation of more elaborate figurative elements.

[edit] Standalone movie theaters of the Philippines

During the advent and continuous growth of Philippine cinema in the early 90's, came
with the establishment of Philippine theaters in the Metropolitan Manila along with those
in the Philippine provinces during the said period. Regular live performances, film
showings, and festivals used to be held on the theaters that lead to significant
improvements on Philippine culture including film, and performing arts. A number of
Philippine cinemas were built within the City of Manila in the 90's, and were designed by
prominent architects and currently recognized as Philippine National Artists, but are
closed due to post-World War damages and to give way to these days' city developments.

[edit] Examples of Filipino Architecture

[edit] Parish of the Holy Sacrifice

The Church of the Holy Sacrifice

The Parish of the Holy Sacrifice is the first circular church and the first thin-shell
concrete dome in the Philippines

The Parish of the Holy Sacrifice is the landmark Catholic chapel in the University of the
Philippines, Diliman. Known for its architectural design, the church is recognized as a
National Historical Landmark and a Cultural Treasure by the National Historical Institute
and the National Museum respectively. It was designed by the late National Artist for
Architecture, Leandro Locsin, which was only one of the five national artists who
collaborated on the project. Alfredo Juinio served as the structural engineer for the
project. Otyer Filipion artists contributed to the design of the interior of the church:
Around the Chapel are fifteen large murals painted by Vicente Manansala depicting the
Stations of the Cross; The marble altar and the large wooden cross above it were sculpted
by Napoleon Abueva; The mosaic floor mural called the “River of Life” was designed by
Arturo Luz.

The church is adjacent to the U.P. Health Service Building and the U.P. Shopping Center

[edit] Bahay Kubo mansion

National artist for architecture Francisco Manosa, on May, 2008 built his own Ayala
alabang village Bahay Kubo mansion. With only 3 posts or "haligi", it has 5 one-inch
coconut shell doors, 2nd floor, a "silong", Muslim room, sala, and master's bedroom with
a fish pond therein.[4][5]

[edit] Antipolo Church

The image of "Our Lady of Peace and Good Voyage" has been venerated in the church of
Antipolo for centuries. The old church that housed the virgin was destroyed in February
1945 when the Americans bombed Antipolo as part of the liberation campaign of Manila.
In 1954 a new church was build designed by the renowned Filipino archtiect Jose de
Ocampo. This church is of a coupular design centred around the image of the Virgin. It
functions as the center point of the pilgremiges to Antipolo.

Architecture of the World ­ Nineteenth 
Century, from 1800 to 1899
Subscribe free to architecture newsletters by ArchitectureWeek!
GreatBuildings.com Search ­ Advanced Search ­ Buildings | Architects | Types | Places | Pix | 3D 
Models | ArchitectureWeek | CAD Store 

Subscribers ­ login to skip ads
Allegheny County Courthouse, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, 1883 to 1888.
Altes Museum, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, at Berlin, Germany, 1823 to 1830.

Ames Free Library, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at North Easton, Massachusetts,

1877 to 1879.

Ames Gate Lodge, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at North Easton, Massachusetts, 1881.

Anker Building, by Otto Wagner, at Vienna, Austria, 1895.

Auditorium Building, by Louis H. Sullivan, at Chicago, Illinois, 1886 to 1890.

Austin Hall, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1881 to 1884.

Baltimore-Ohio Railroad Depots, by Frank Furness, at Chester & Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania, 1886.

Baltimore Cathedral, by Benjamin Henry Latrobe, at Baltimore, Maryland, 1806 or 1814

to 1818.

Bank of Pennsylvania, by Benjamin Henry Latrobe, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1780

to 1800.

Barcelona Pavilion, by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, at Barcelona, Spain, built 1928-
1929, demolished 1930.

Bibliotheque Ste. Genevieve, by Henri Labrouste, at Paris, France, 1843 designed, built
1845 to 1851.

Bibliotheque Nationale, by Henri Labrouste, at Paris, France, 1862 to 1868.

Biltmore House, by Richard Morris Hunt, at Asheville, North Carolina, 1888 to 1895.

Bloemenwerf House, by Henry van de Velde, at Uccle, near Brussels, Belgium, 1895 to
1896.

Boston Public Library, by McKim, Mead, and White, at Boston, Massachusetts, 1887 to
1895.

Bradbury Building, by George H. Wyman, at Los Angeles, California, 1889 to 1893.

Brooklyn Bridge, by John Augustus Roebling, at Brooklyn, New York, New York, 1869
to 1883.

Castlegar House, by Richard Morrison, at Castlegar West, County Galway, Ireland, circa
1801.
Central Railroad Station, by John Dobson, at Newcastle-on-Tyne, England, 1846 to
1855.

Chandler House, by Bruce Price, at Tuxedo Park, New York, 1885 to 1886.

Charleston Single House, by Vernacular, at Charleston, South Carolina, 1800 to 1900.

City of Quito, by Collective, at Quito, Ecuador , 1550 to 1900.

Clifton Suspension Bridge, by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, at Bristol, England, 1836 to

1864.

Colonia Guell, by Antoni Gaudi, at near Barcelona, Spain, 1898 , 1908 to 1915.

Commodities Exchange, by Hendrik Petrus Berlage, at Amsterdam, The Netherlands,

1897 to 1909.

Crane Library, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Quincy, Massachusetts, 1880 to 1883.

Crystal Palace, by Joseph Paxton, at London, England (then Sydenham), 1851, moved
1852, burnt 1936.

Dogon Village, by traditional, at Mali, Africa, 0 to 1998.

Dogtrot House, by Vernacular, at Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia,

Tennessee, Florida, 1800 to 1900.

Dulwich Gallery, by Sir John Soane, at London, England, 1811 to 1814.

Dunleith, by unknown, at Natchez, Mississippi, 1856.

Eiffel Tower, by Gustave Eiffel, at Paris, France, 1887 to 1889.

English Hall House, by Vernacular, at England, 1200 to 1800.

F. L. Higginson House, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Boston, Massachusetts, 1881 to

1883.

Faneuil Hall, by Charles Bulfinch, at Boston, Massachusetts, 1762, 1805.

Fort Shannon, by unknown, at Glin, County Limerick, Ireland, 1800 to 1835.

Fuji Broadcasting Center, by Kenzo Tange, at Tokyo, Japan, circa 1990.

Galleria Vittorio Emanuele, by Giuseppe Mengoni, at Milan, Italy, 1861 designed, built
1865 to 1877.
Glasgow School of Art, by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, at Glasgow, Scotland, 1897 to
1909.

Glessner House, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Chicago, Illinois, 1885 to 1887.

Greek Island House, by Vernacular, at Aegean Islands, Greece, -3000 to 2000.

Greyfriars, by Charles F. A. Voysey, at Surrey, England, 1897.

Helsinki Library, by Carl Ludvig Engel, at Helsinki, Finland, 1840.

Horta House, by Victor Horta, at Brussels, Belgium, 1898.

Hotel Solvay, by Victor Horta, at Brussels, Belgium, 1895 to 1900.

Hotel van Eetvelde, by Victor Horta, at Brussels, Belgium, 1895 to 1898.

Hunting Lodge, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, at Antonin, Poland, 1822.

I House, by Vernacular, at United States, 1800 to 1900.

Ibibio Village, by traditional, at Cameroon, Africa, 0 to 1990.

Imperial Palace, Kyoto, by unknown, at Kyoto, Japan, 750 to 1855.

Isaac Bell House, by McKim, Mead, and White, at Newport, Rhode Island, 1881 to
1883.

Ise Shrine, by traditional, at Ise, Japan, 690 to current, 1997.

Keble College, by William Butterfield, at Oxford, England, UK, 1867 to 1883.

Landerbank, by Otto Wagner, at Vienna, Austria, 1883 to 1884.

Leys Wood, by Richard Norman Shaw, at Groombridge, Sussex, England, 1868 to 1869.

London Terraced House, by Vernacular, at London, England, 1600 's to 1900.

M F Stoughton House, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1882

to 1883.

Maasai Houses, by traditional, at Kenya, Africa, 0 to 1990.

Magasin au Bon Marche, by L. A. Boileau and Gustave Eiffel, at Paris, France, 1876.

Majolica House, by Otto Wagner, at Vienna, Austria, 1898 to 1899.

Marshall Field Store, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Chicago, Illinois, 1885 to 1887.

Menier Factory, by Jules Saulnier, at Noisel-sur-Marne, France, 1871 to 1872.

Merchants' Exchange, by William Strickland, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1832 to

1834.

Merrist Wood, by Richard Norman Shaw, at England, 1876.

Monadnock Building, by Burnham and Root, at Chicago, Illinois, 1889 to 1891.

Museum of Natural History, by Alfred Waterhouse, at London, England, 1860 to 1880.

Nathaniel Russell House, by unknown, at Charleston, South Carolina, 1809.

National Building Museum, by Montgomery C. Meigs, at Washington, D.C., circa 1885.

National Pensions Building, by Alvar Aalto, at Helsinki, Finland, competition 1949,

built 1952.

Neuschwanstein Castle, by unknown, at Neuschwanstein, Germany, 1869.

New York Herald Building, by McKim, Mead, and White, at New York, New York,
1894.

New York Public Library, by Carrere and Hastings, at New York, New York, 1897 to
1911.

Newport Casino, by McKim, Mead, and White, at Newport, Rhode Island, 1879 to 1880.

North Carolina State Capitol, by Town and Davis, at Raleigh, North Carolina, 1833 to
1840.

Norwegian Farmhouse, by Vernacular, at Norway, 1200 to 1900.

Norwegian Storehouse, by Vernacular, at Norway, 1200 to 1900.

Oak Alley, by unknown, at Vacherie, Louisiana, 1836 to 1839.

Oaks Ames Memorial Library, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at North Easton,

Massachusetts, 1877 to 1879.

Observatory in Berlin, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, at Berlin, Germany, 1835.

Paddington Station, by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, at London, England, UK, 1852 to

1854.
Palm House at Kew Gardens, by Decimus Burton and Richard Turner, at London,
England, 1844 to 1848.

Paris Metro Entrances, by Hector Guimard, at Paris, France, 1899 to 1905.

Paris Opera, by Charles Garnier, at Paris, France, 1857 to 1874.

Pennsylvania Academy of Art, by Frank Furness, at Philadelphia , Pennsylvania, 1871

to 1876.

Plum Street Temple, by James K. Wilson, at Cincinnati, Ohio, 1866.

Pont Cysyllte Aqueduct, by Thomas Telford, at River Dee, Wales, 1795 to 1805.

Poplar Forest, by Thomas Jefferson, at Forest, near Lynchburg, Virginia, 1806.

Portois & Fix Store, by Max Fabiani, at Vienna, Austria, 1899 to 1900.

Positano, by traditional, at Amalfi Coast, Italy, -600 to 1990.

R. T. Paine House, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Waltham, Massachusetts, 1884 to

1886.

Reliance Building, by Daniel Burnham, at Chicago, Illinois, 1890 , extended to 14 floors

1894.

Rhode Island State Capitol, by McKim, Mead, and White, at Providence, Rhode Island,
1895 to 1903.

S. Pancras Station, by William Henry Barlow, at London, England, U. K., 1864 - 1868.

Sagrada Familia, by Antoni Gaudi, at Barcelona, Spain, 1882 to 1926.

San Francisco de Asis, by unknown, at Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico, 1772 to 1816.

Schauspielhaus, by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, at Berlin, Germany, 1821.

Schlesinger and Meyer Department Store, by Louis H. Sullivan, at Chicago, Illinois,

1899 to 1904.

Second Bank of the U.S., by William Strickland, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1818 to

1824.

Sever Hall, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1878 to 1880.

Sezession House, by J. M. Olbrich, at Vienna, Austria, 1896.

Shaker Barn, by unknown, at Eastern United States, 1865.

Soane Museum, by Sir John Soane, at London, England, 1812 to 1834.

Statue of Liberty, by Frederic Bartholdi, at Liberty Island, New York, New York, 1884
to 1886.

Tassel House, by Victor Horta, at Brussels, Belgium, 1892 to 1893.

The Albert Dock, by Jesse Hartley, at Liverpool, England, opened 1845.

The Louvre, by Pierre Lescot, at Paris, France, 1546 to 1878.

The Machine Hall, by Contamin and Dutert, at Paris, France, 1889.

The Orchard, by Charles F. A. Voysey, at Chorley Wood in Hertfordshire, England, 1899.

The Red House, by Philip Webb, at Bexleyheath, in Kent, England, 1859.

The White House, by James Hoban, at Washington, D.C., 1793 to 1801, burned 1814,
porticos 1824 to 1829.

Thomas Larkin House, by unknown, at Monterey, California, 1834.

Tower Bridge, by Horace Jones, at London, England, 1886 to 1894.

Travis Van Buren House, by Bruce Price, at Tuxedo Park, New York, 1885.

Trinity Church, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Boston, Massachusetts, 1872 to 1877.

Trumbull Public Library, by A. J. Palmieri, at Trumbull, Connecticut, circa 1970.

U.S. Custom House, by Town and Davis, at New York, New York, 1833 to 1842.

Unitarian Church, by A. C. Schweinfurth, at Berkeley, California, 1898.

United States Capitol, by Thornton-Latrobe-Bulfinch, at Washington, D.C., 1793 to

1830.

University of Virginia, by Thomas Jefferson, at Charlottesville, Virginia, 1826.

W. G. Low House, by McKim, Mead, and White, at Bristol, Rhode Island, 1887.

W. Watts Sherman House, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Newport, Rhode Island,

1874 to 1875.
Wainwright Building, by Louis H. Sullivan, at St. Louis, Missouri, 1890 to 1891.

Washington Monument, by Robert Mills, at Washington, D.C., 1848 to 1885.

Wellesley Fire Station, by Schwartz/Silver, at Wellesley, Massachusetts, circa 1980.

Westminster Palace, or Houses of Parliament, by Sir Charles Barry, at London,

England, United Kingdom, 1836 to 1868.

Whitechapel Art Gallery, by C. Harrison Townsend, at London, England, 1897 to 1901.

Winn Memorial Library, by Henry Hobson Richardson, at Woburn, Massachusetts, 1876

to 1879.

Zulu Kraal, by traditional, at South Africa, 0 to 2000.