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Diode Fundamentals
Dr.Debashis De Associate Professor West Bengal University of Technology
Outline
Introduction Formation of the pn Junction Energy Band Diagrams Concepts of Junction Potential Modes of the pn Junction Derivation of the IV Characteristics of a pn Junction Diode Linear Piecewise Models Breakdown Diode Special Types of pn Junction Semiconductor Diodes Applications of Diode
INTRODUCTION
The origin of a wide range of electronic devices being used can be traced back to a simple device, the pn junction diode. The pn junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor impurity is doped on one side and an n-type impurity is doped on the other side of a single crystal. All the macro effects of electronic devices, i.e., wave shaping, amplifying or regenerative effects, are based on the events occurring at the junction of the pn device. Most modern devices are a modification or amalgamation of pn devices in various forms. Prior to the era of semiconductor diodes, vacuum tubes were being extensively used. These were bulky, costly and took more time to start conducting because of the thermo-ionic emission. The semiconductor diodes and the allied junction devices solved all these problems.
A semiconductor pn junction The presence of a concentration gradient between two materials in such intimate contact results in a diffusion of carriers that tends to neutralize this gradient. This process is known as the diffusion process. The nature of the pn junction so formed may, in general, be of two types: A step-graded junction:- In a step-graded semiconductor junction, the impurity density in the semiconductor is constant. A linearly-graded junction:- In a linearly-graded junction, the impurity density varies linearly with distance away from the junction.
(where pn is the hole concentration in n-type semiconductors, np is the electron concentration in p-type semiconductors; nn and pp are the electron and hole concentrations in n- and p-type semiconductors respectively.)
The energy band diagram of a pn junction under the condition of thermal equilibrium
It should be noted that a voltmeter cannot measure this electrostatic potential since the internal field is set up to oppose the diffusion current and also since the built-in potential is cancelled exactly by the potential drop across the contact. The barrier energy corresponding to barrier potential Vd is expressed as EB = eVd. The value of EB can be changed by doping change. The value of EB is different for different semiconductors.
(where, the plus and minus signs are for the reverse-biased and the forward-biased conditions.)
The plus sign is for the forward-biased case where minority carriers are injected. The minus sign is for the reverse-biased case where minority carriers are extracted. The concentration of the carriers on the boundaries, for the usual cases, Na >> ni and under an external applied voltage V is shown in right side figure.
Electron and hole carriers at the boundaries of a pn junction under an externally applied voltage
The profiles of charge density, potential, and electric field in an abrupt junction
where, Lp = Dpp is the diffusion length and pn is the equilibrium density of holes in the n-region far away from the junction. The solution of the ordinary differential is: where, C1 and C2 are two arbitrary constants. The boundary conditions in this case are:
The current density of holes in n-type semiconductors along the x direction by diffusion is given by: From above two equation we get :
The hole current density at the edge of the transition region i.e, at x = xn, from above equation is given as:
The total direct current of the diode, with a cross-sectional junction area A, is: where
IV Characteristics of pn junction diode Linear piecewise models of a diode for different order of approximations
BREAKDOWN DIODE
Breakdown diodes are pn junction diodes operated in the reverse-bias mode. This breakdown occurs at a critical reverse-bias voltage (Vbr). At this critical voltage the reverse current through the diode increases sharply, and relatively large currents flow with little increase in voltage. These diodes are designed with sufficient power-dissipation capabilities to work in the breakdown region. The following two mechanisms can cause reverse breakdown in a junction diode.
Reverse-biased pn junction
BREAKDOWN DIODE
Zener Breakdown Zener breakdown occurs when a sufficiently large reverse-bias is applied across a pn junction diode. The resulting electric field at the junction imparts a very large force on a bound electron, enough to dislodge it from its covalent bond. The breaking of the covalent bonds produces a large number of EHP (electronhole pairs). Consequently the reverse current becomes very large. This type of breakdown phenomena is known as Zener breakdown.
IV characteristics
BREAKDOWN DIODE
Avalanche Breakdown In a reverse-biased junction, the minority-carriers drift across the depletion region. On their way across this region, they occasionally have collisions with atoms in the lattice. With a large enough field, a carrier drifting across the depletion region is accelerated to the point where it has enough energy to knock a valance electron free from its host atom during a collision. The field then separates the electron and hole of this newly created EHP and we now have three mobile carriers instead of one. This process is called avalanche multiplication. The multiplication can become quite large if the carriers generated by this collision also acquire to create more carriers, thereby initiating a chain reaction. Once the process starts, the number of multiplication that can occur from a single collision increases rapidly with further increase in the reverse-bias, so the terminal current grows rapidly, and we say that the junction breaks down. This is called avalanche breakdown.
BREAKDOWN DIODE
A single such event results in multiplication of carriers; the original electron as well as the secondary electron are swept to the n-type semiconductor, while, the generated hole is swept to the p-type semiconductors.
BREAKDOWN DIODE
Comparison between Zener and avalanche breakdown
Comparison of Zener breakdown of Ge The IV characteristics comparison and Si semiconductor diodes with respect to IV curve between Zener and avalanche breakdown
Increased forward bias condition where the current begins to increase again
Small-signal model of the tunnel diode. (Typical values for these parameters for a tunnel diode of peak current IP 10 mA are Rn 30 , Rs 1 , Ls 5 nH and capacitance C 20 pF respectively)
IV characteristics of an illuminated solar cell Top finger contact with antishowing the point of maximum power reflecting coating
APPLICATIONS OF DIODE
Radio Demodulation:- In demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts diodes are used. The crystal diodes rectify the AM signal, leaving a signal whose average amplitude is the desired audio signal. The average value is obtained by using a simple filter and the signal is fed into an audio transducer, which generates sound. Power Conversion:- In the CockcroftWalton voltage multiplier, which converts ac into very high dc voltages, diodes are used. Full-wave rectifiers are made using diodes, to convert alternating current electricity into direct current . Over-voltage Protection:- Diodes are used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices by putting them in reversebiased condition under normal circumstances. When the voltage rises from normal range, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting). In stepper motor, H-bridge motor controller and relay circuits diodes are used to deenergize coils rapidly without damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. These are called a fly-back diodes. Logic Gates:- AND and OR logic gates are constructed using diodes in combination with other components. This is called diode logic.
APPLICATIONS OF DIODE
Ionizing Radiation Detectors In addition to light, energetic radiation also excites semiconductor diodes. A single particle of radiation, having very high electron volts of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is transmitted in the semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole energy or to stop a heavy particle, an accurate measurement of the particles energy is possible. These semiconductor radiation detectors require efficient charge collection and low leakage current. They are cooled by liquid nitrogen. Common materials are Ge and Si. Temperature Measuring:- The forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature. A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device. This temperature dependence follows from the Shockley ideal diode equation and is typically around -2.2 mV per degree Celsius. Charge-coupled Devices:- Arrays of photodiode, integrated with readout circuitry are used in digital cameras and similar units.