2

(S.I.)

L
m
t

meter

Kilogram

second

m
Kg
sec

Amperes

Kelvin
mole
Candela
radian
steredian

K
mole
cd
rad
sr

deka
da = 101
hecto
h = 102
Kilo
K = 103
Mega
M = 106
Giga
G = 109
Terra
T = 1012
Peta
P = 1015
Exa
E = 1018

deci
d = 10-1
centi
c = 10-2
milli
m = 10-3
micro
= 10-6
nano
n = 10-9
pico
p = 10-12
femto
f = 10-15
atto
a = 10-18

:
12 cm = 12 10-2 m = 0,12 m
220 m = 22010-6 m
15 KW = 15103 W
200 nF = 20010-9 F

m2 m3. :
cm = 10-2 m (cm)2 = (10-2 m)2 cm2 = 10-4 m2
mm = 10-3 m (mm)3 = (10-2 m)3 mm3 = 10-6 m3
:
1 L = 10-3 m3, 1 m3 = 103 L
1 L = 103 mL, 1 mL = 10-3 L

.
x ,
. x(t)
. x=x(t) .
-

(x)

.
x y
o x y .
x y ,
.
(x(t), y(t))

t.

A
yA

A(xA, yA)

xA

.
x y z
o
x y z .

r
r(t) =(x(t),y(t),z(t))
t.

z
zA
A(xA,yA,zA

xA

yA
A

.
uur ur ur
r = r2 r1
r1 r2 .
x = x2-x1

. .
u (Velocity)

uur
r r
. u =
r . (
t
11)
4

uur
r x
x x
x
u =
u = 2 1 u =
t 2 -t 1
t
t
2
m/sec
uur
uuur
r
r
: u =
r(t)
t 0 t
S
: u = u =
t

: .

u =
x = xo + u(t to)

x = xo + ut

x = ut ( xo=0)

xo ( to=0 sec)

(
)

(m/sec)

(m)

20

10
0

t (sec)

t (sec)

x-t ... .

u
uur
uur
r u
r
u
u u -u
=
: =
= = 2 1
t
t t 2 -t 1
t 0 t
2
m/sec
uur
u , :

()

Uo

U
+x

()

Uo

U
+x

r
a .

16
8

8
0

-2

.... (uo 0)
6

(>0)

(<0)

=
u =uo + t

=
u =uo - t

1
1
x = uot - t2
2
2
.... (uo = 0)
(>0)
(<0)

x = uot + t2

=
u =t

( !)

1
x = t2
2

5
8
0

-2

16
8

u u1
= 2
t 2 t1

(m)

x x
. u= 2 1
t 2 t1

10
0

t (sec)

(Force) .
Newton = Kgm/sec2

F1

F2

F1

F=F2+F1

F=F2-F1

F1

F2

F1

F1

F2

F2

F1

F = F12 + F22
=

F = F12 + F22 + 2F1F2

F1
F2

F1
F2 + F1

Fy = F

()


.

Fx = F

Hooke

.
F=Kx,
K : ,
x : .
Newton
.
8

uuur r
F = 0

. . .

Newton


uuur
r F
uuur
r
=
F = m
m
uur
uuur p
: F =
( = )
t
x y :
Fx=max
Fy=may
: F = m
:

....
...

Newton
FAB ,
FBA. :
r
r
FAB =-FBA
Newton:

m 1m 2
r2
G :
G = 6,67310-11 m2Kgr-2
r :

F=G

m1

m2

r
F1

F2

0 ,max T,max=Fk
:
:
Fk : .

9 ()
< ,max
9

T = Fk

()

9 = Fk

(Momentum)
r
r
p=mu

10

( )
.
F=0 p=p
( . 43)
-

Newton ( ) :
ur uuur
uur uuur
uur ur
p = Ft = F t p =
r
ur r
p + = p
( )

.
(, )
.
.
: (photon)
<10-15
: (gluon)

10

, . <10-18
: W+, W-, Z

. .
: (Graviton) (
)

11

:
f : sec f =

N
= , Hz=s-1
t

1
T
u

- : f=

: u=
u=

S
t

2R
u =2Rf
T
: m/sec

: =

2
= 2f
T
: rad/sec

u
u
.

!
.


.

- : u = R
:

. u, , .
u2
=
R

. :
mu 2
F=m F=
R
Newton :

mu 2
R

FR=F =

r xy,
( ) r:
uur
r dr
u=
dt
11

12

, . :
(//u)

( u)

ro

x
O
u2
R ( R
)
=

F = m

12

13

-

ur r
W=FS ( W=F S )
:
F:
S:
: F S.

F
S

Joule ( J = Newtonm)
F=(x)

F=(x) x.

W = F=(x) .

F1

=90

W=TS180 W=-TS
( x1 x2) :

1
1
x12 - x22
2
2
T x1, x2 . (...)
W =

. .

( )
x1

x2

(Energy)

, . .
, , .
Joule, J = Newtonm

m =mc2 (Einstein 1905).

, .
( ) (.. ).

13

14

(Potential Energy)

UAB
U = - W

UB = mg(hh) UB = mgh

1 2
x
2
To x .
UE=

q1 q2 r
qq
U=K 1 2
r
(Kinetic Energy)

1
= mu2
2
(Conservative)
,

:
, (Coulomb), ,
:
, , ,

=+U

( ) ,
= 1 + U1 = K2 + U2

E=WF- (= Q)

( , ....)
14

15

= WF
= WF1+WF2+
(To .... , )

:
W
P=
=
t
t
P = E/t
() F : P = Fu()
:
u
F u
: Watt, W=Joule/sec HP =750 W (Horse Power = )
:
,

15

16

q Q (Electric Charge)

( ). :
(+)
(-)
:

, .
, () e = 1,6 10-19 C
e. Q=Ne
:
. .
:
Coulomb C ( = Amperesec)

Coulomb

( ) q1 q2 :
qq
F=K 1 2 2
r
: K=9109 m2/C2
r :
1
=
4
: (permittivity of free space)
= 8,8510-12 C2N-1m-2
: ( )
(Electric Field)

.
.
(Electric Intensity)

q , q
ur
ur F
()
E=
+q
/C V/m.
Q
E = K 2
r
:
Q :
r : -

16

-q
F

+q

17

V (Potential)
V ,
q , q.
W
V = A ()
+q
U
V=
+q
Q
(o o Q o )
VA = K
rA
UA :

+q
+

WA

W
V = VA - VB = A B ()
+q
U AB
V = VA - VB =
+q
1 1
VAB = K Q
rA rB
( )
(Field Lines)

-q

.
:
- .
( )
.
.

17

18

. .
.

(Capacitor)

. :
C

C (Capacitance)

Q
V
Coulomb C
Farad, F =
=
Volt
V
:
S
C =
l
:
:
:
S :
:
C=

1
1 Q2
U= QV U =
2
2 C

1
U = CV 2
2

(permittivity)

() Co C>Co =Co/C.
( ).

18

19

(Direct Current)

,
.
(Electric Current)

: = q/t i = q/t
Ampere, ()
(Electric Cell)

, .
()

(Electromotive Force)
P
W
= E=
I
q
(E W) . Volt,
V=J/C
(Resistance)

:
V
R=
I
Ohm, = Volt/Ampere
S (
) :
l
R=
S

=(1+)
:
:
: 0
:
:
R=R(1+)
, Ohm

i V
R,
V
=
R
: .
Joule

R i t :
Q=i2Rt

19

20

E = iVt
E = i2Rt
V2
E=
t
R

P = iV
P = i2R
V2
P=
R

V1
R1

V2
R2

R1

i1

V3

R2

i2

R3

R3

i3

i
i
V

:
i
i1=i2=i3
V1+V2+V3=V
R=R1+R2+R3

V

V1=V2=V3=V
i1 + i2 + i3 = i
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
R R 1 R 2 R 3

Kirchhoff

(+) (-)
. i = 0
( )

Kirchhoff

.
V = 0
( )

Ohm

, r, R :
E
i=
E=i(R+r)
R+r

P = i

P = Vi

( = i2R )

P = i2r

20

21

.
r
V = E iR

()

V
i

- ( .. V
)

i

i

.

.

i=/r

. .

() . .

21

22

(Magnetism)

, Fe3O4
(Magnetic Field)
.

ur

B .
(Magnetic Induction) : Tesla, T=N/Am

B . :
( )
(North N) (South S)


Biot-Savart

i r
=
:

il

4 r 2

: ( )
=1,2610-6 mKgC-2

r
i

2i
4 r
B = 2i
r

B=

:
: 10-7 Wb/Am

K =
4

22

i


(
)

23

i :

2i
4 r
B = 2i
r

B=

():

i
.

:

.

(Solenoid)

:
= 4nI
B = nI
= N I
l

B
i

:
:
( )

:

:
(
!)
(Permeability of medium)

.
=/
:

(Ferromagnetic)
Fe, Ni, Co
>>1

(Paramagnetic)
Al , U,
>1

(Diamagnetic)
Cu, Bi, Hg, ,
<1

23

24

Laplace

,
Laplace

FL

FL=Bi
B
Laplace

FL=Bi

Laplace
- ,
Laplace

.
FL :
B

.
Laplace.
Lorentz

q u ,
FL = Buq
:
ur r
FL = q(B u)
( )

:
ur ur r
FL = q(E + B u)

24

FL

u
T
(B) u .
Laplace.
i
u.
i u , .

25

(Electromagnetic Induction)
.
(Magnetic Flux)

S

,
ur r
= BS = B S

n
S

:
:
S : ( )
n
: S.

.
: Weber, Wb = Teslam.
(Faraday)

=t

d
==-
dt
t 0 t
Lenz

Lenz

.
Faraday.
( Von Neumann)

Q=R
(Self-Induction)

.
:
i
=-L
t
L = Henry ()
( = VsecA-1)
:
L = 2/
: ( )
:
:
:

25

26

i ( )
1
U B = Li 2
2
(Mutual Inductance)

( (1)
(2)) (2) i
(1) :
i
=-
t
M :

U
r
( ( l, u) ) :
= U

Laplace (Lorenz)
.

:
1
E =
2

26

27

(Alternating Current)
V=Vot
Vo :
R i i=Iot
V
: = o
R
(Effective value)

I
= o
2
=0,707

.
V
V = o
2
V=0,707 V
Ohm

, :
V
V
V
i= , Io= o , I=
R
R
R
Z () (Impedance)

Z=

Vo V
=
.

(Capacitance)

ZC=

1
C

(Inductance)

L = L
(Resistance)

R = R

VC /2 i

VL /2 i

VR i

27

28

RLC (, , )

:
V = ( VL VC )2 + VR2

2
V = 2 L
+ ( R )
C

2
= L
+R
C

-:
R
=
Z
i=t v=V(t+) V
.

VL
V

VL-VC

VR

VC

RLC

(Power)

P=iv
(Effective Power)

P=V

: - .
RLC

L=ZC VL=VC V=VR =0.

. RLC
:
1
2 LC
( RLC )

f=

28

29

(Periodic Motions)
(Simple harmonic motion)

..

x=At x=0 t=0
:
u = umaxt umax=
= -maxt max=2

...
F = - Dx
:
D :
x : ..
(angular frequency)

D = m2
D
=
m
(Period)

=2

m
D

= - 2x
-

u = A 2 x 2

= u 2max u 2

UT =

1 2
Dx
2

1
mu 2
2

()

1
1
DA 2 = mu 2max
2
2
29

30

+ UT = E

( F=-bu) .
:
b:

= e-t
:
: t=0
: b
t : t=NT

A o A1 A 2
=
=
=
A1 A 2 A 3

(). f fo .
(Resonance)

:
f = fo.



fo

fo

LC :
T= 2 LC

. q=Q i=0 t=0:

q = Qt
i = - It = Q
B. q=0 i=I t=0:
q = Qt
i = It

30

31

Q
+
+
+

q=0
-

t=0

T/4

+
+
+

T/2

i=0

i=I

i=0
Q

q=0
3T/4

+
+
+

i=I

i=0

. q0 i0 t=0:
q = Q(t+)
i = - I(t+)
(Capacitor)

UE =

1 q2
2 C

(Inductance)

UB =

1 2
Li
2

E = UE+UB

1 Q2
1
E=
= LI 2
2 C
2

i = Q 2 q 2

VL = VC

31

32

1/C

i/t

UE

UB

.
x=x1+x2
. 1=2=
. 1=2= 1 2

x1=A1t, x2=A2t

2 1 + 2
t
t
x = 2A 1
x1=A1t,
2
2

x =A (t + )
2

B1. 1=2= 1 2

x = A(t+)
A=

32

A12 + A 22 + 2A 1A 2
2
1 + 2

x = A t
:
+ 2
2
= 2A 1
t = 1
2
2

(beats)
:
1
=
f = |f1 - f2|
f1 f2

33

(Waves)
( ) .
:
()
()
:
() :
( )
. .

() :
.
.

() :

, .

(Wave length)

. : . :
2

u =

t x
y = A 2
T
x
t x
y = A 2 +
T
x
() (Interference)

r r
t r +r
y = 2A 2 1 2 2 1 2
2

: |r1-r2|=
: |r1-r2|=(2+1)/2
(Stationary Wave)

. .
y = y1+y2
x
t
y = 2 2 2

: x = , =0, 1, 2, ...
: x=(2+1) , =0, 1, 2, ...
2
4
Doppler

(Doppler effect)
(Observer O) (Source S)
:

33

34

fo=fs u u o
u m us
:
fo :
fs :
u :
uo :
us :
( )
.

.
,
,
,
c.
.
= max 2 t x
T
B = Bmax 2 t x
T
:
E
c=
B

34

c
E

c
.
c c=3108 m/s

35

(Reflection)

.
.

.
.
(Refraction)

n1

n1 n2 . .

n2

n (Refractive Index)

n=

co
c

:
n > 1 c<co
n = 1 ()
n ()
c =

co
n

n
, = o , 1 = 2

n 2 n1
:
n.
n.
n c
: n=

35

36

() .
.
n1 n2.
n1

n1

n2

n2

, n1>n2

, n1<n2

Snell

n
=
n
( n n)
(Total internal reflection)

.
90 .

n1

90

n2

90

n1
n2

n1
n2

n n1=1 =

1
n

(Dispersion)

n . .
36

37

n
1,54

1,51

400 nm

700 nm

n
()

:
c

.

()

37

38

(Center of Mass)

Oxyz
( mi xi, yi, zi)
:
m i x i
m i y i
m i z i
x cm =
, y cm =
, zcm =
m i
m i
m i
r
r
m i r i
: r cm =
m i
( )

() . : rad/sec2
ur
r d
=
dt
d

().
.

ur
ur
F
cm =

:
F :
:
CM :

P ( ) ()
r
ur
dp
F =
dt

F = 0 dP/dt = 0 P =
(Moment of Force)

ur
= r F =Fd

=Fd
:
d : F

38

39

F
d r
:

F d .
= Fd

F
F

:
Fx = 0
ur r

F = 0 Fy = 0
F = 0
z
:
r
=0

uCM

(Moment of Inertia)

:
I = m1r12 + m2r22 + + miri2
I = miri2

r1
r2

:
= r 2 dm

r3
ri

m1
m2
m3
mi

39

40

mR2

1
ML2
12

1
M( 2 + 2 )
12

R2

1
MR 2
2

1
MR 2
2

1
MR 2
2

2
MR 2
5

2
MR 2
3

Steiner-Huygens
( )

= CM + Md2

:
:
CM :

:
d :

L (Angular Momentum)

L m
u r
ur urr r r
L =Lr = pr p
L=mur
:
p : p=mu

40

L
r
p

.
.
ur r r
L = rp
L = mur L = mud
:
d : ()

41

L
d

I

ur ur
L = I (1)

L = I

ur ur ur
L = L 1 + L 2 + ...

(1) . L ( !). -

ur

ur

L z = I , z Lz z.

Newton .
:
uur ur
= =

:
ur
ur
uur dL
uur
dL
=
=
dt
dt

:
ur
uur
ur
ur
dL
= 0 L = L I1=2 ( =)
=
dt
11=22

1
= 2
2
:
1
1
2
= 2 + u cm
2
2

41

42

dS

F

W = dW = FRd = d
d .
:
W=

1
1
W = 22 - I 12
2
2
.

R uCM

uCM = u = R
:
CM = R
:
CM :
:

R
ucm

:
=
= + t

:
=
= + t
= + t + t2

42

43

(Collisions)

.
() .
, ,
(scattering)
(central) (non central), (elastic) (inelastic), ( ) , , .

r
r
p = p
.

.
p=p
m2u2 m1u1 = (m1+m2)u

m1

u2

u1

m2

u
m1+m2

...
m2
m1
u2
u1
. :
r
r
r ' (m m 2 )u1 + 2m 2 u 2
u1 = 1
+
m1 + m 2
r
r
u1
u2
r ' (m 2 m 1 )u 2 + 2m 1 u1
u2 =
m1 + m 2
+
( ) ,
.
:
r
r ' (m 1 m 2 )u1
u1 =
m1 + m 2
r
r'
2m 1 u1
u2 =
m1 + m 2
. .

... .

( ).

( ).

43

44

(Perfect Gases)

( Gay-Lussac)
( Charles)
P
V
= .
= .
T
T


( Boyle-Marriote)
( Poisson)
PV=.
PV =.

PV = nRT

:
n : mole, n=m/MB, n=N/N
: Avogadro 6,0231023 mol
R : 8,3144 Jmol-1K-1

PV
= .
T

( P, V, T)
, .
, , , , ,
:
i.
ii. ( , )
iii.
iv.
v. , .
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.

:
1
1N
P = du 2 =
mu 2
3
3V
2
u :
d :
:
m :

(root mean square speed)

3kT
3RT
u = u rms = u 2 =
=
m
Mr

3
= kT
2
:
44

45

k : Boltzmann,
k = R/NA 1,3810-23 JK-1

=kT.
f (degree of freedom)
f=3
f=5
f=7
f>6
:
f
K = kT
2

Cp=CV + R
Cp :
CV :

:
= Cp/Cv
CV = R/(-1)
CP = R/(-1)
CV = fR/2
CP = (f/2+1)R

(Internal Energy)

1
kT
2
U = n CVT
U = Nf

45

46

Q=U+W
Q : (>0) (<0)
U :
W : (>0) (<0)
(Reversible change)

()
.
P-V .

P

P
2>1

2
1
V

:
U = 0, W = Q,

P2V2=P1V1

B V1

V2
V2

V1

V2

2
1

A
1

Q = nCVT, U = nCVT, W = 0
:
P2/T2=P1/T1

46

V1

V1<V2

47

P
P1
P2

P1

P2
B

2
1

P2

P1

P1<P2

Q = nCPT, U = nCVT, W = PV
:
V2/T2=V1/T1

. Poisson

PV = P1V1 = P2V2
( Poisson)
:
P
P1

V
V1

P2

P2
B

1
2
V

P1

V2

:
Q = 0, U = nCVT U = - W, W =

P2 V2 P1 V1
1

Poisson:
T1V1-1 = 2V2-1
T1P11-/ = 2P21-/

. . :
9
U = nCV = 0.

=0

9 : Q = W ( )
9 P-V
.

47

48

P
P1

W>0

P1

P2

W<0

P2
B

V1

V2

V1

V2

() . P-V.
,
, ( ), . ,
.
P

() ,
.
Q1 1, , Q2
2<1, ( ). W=Q1 - |Q2|

Q1
W
Q2
2

n=

Q Q2
Q
W
= 1
= 1- 2
Q1
Q1
Q1

n>1
P

Carnot

:
: 1 Q1
:
:
Q2 (<0)
48

Q1

Q2

2
V

49

:
nc Carnot
1 2.

Carnot :

Q2
Q1

T2
T1

Carnot

nc= 1 -

T2
T1

Kelvin-Planck:
.
n<1
Clausious:
.

, , . S ( )
S =

SAB= A dQ
B

-
.
S0 .
.

. . :
.

49

50

(Galileo Galilei 1600 ..)

t t t .

uoy uox
x : ux=uox
x=xo + uoxt
uoy

g
uo

y : uy=uoy - gt
y=yo + uoyt -

1
2

uox
gt2

uoy uox
x : ux=uox
x=xo + uoxt
y : uy=uoy + gt
y=yo + uoyt +

1
2

gt2

uox=uo
x : ux=uo
x=xo + uot

ux

x
g

y : uy=gt
y=h - 1 gt2
2

:
g = G M2 , r>R. go = G
r

M
R2

V = - G M
r

m WA=m(VA-VB).
:

:
1=2

1
mu 2 2

G M m = 0 u=
r

2GM
R

, :

u=
50

2GM
R

M R . u = 11,2 Km/sec

51

h
2GM
R + h

u=

uor

. ( h ) : u=

GM
R + h

.
= F = qE = qV
m

ml

+++++++++++++++++++
uoy

uo

+q

+q
E

uox

, V ---------------------------u

u
.

u=uo at
x=xo + uot

1
2

at2

uox=uo
x : ux=uo
x=xo + uot

++++++++++++++++++++
uo
E

----------------------------

y : uy=t
1
2

y=yo + t2

(+)
(-) uoy
uox
x : ux=uox

++++++++++++++++++++
uo
+q

----------------------------

51

52

x=xo + uoxt
y : uy=uoy gt
y=yo + uoyt

1
2

gt2

q :
WA=q(VA-VB).
.

Lorentz
u
.
FL=F Buq=mu2/R

-Q1

FL

R= mu ( )
Bq

u1

T= 2m ( )
q

u2
R2

+Q2

:
e ( !)
.

, u , u||
.
R= mu
Bq

( xx ) x= u||t
.

u
+q

u||
xz
... y

(
).
52

53

x= u||t t=T

53

54

(atomic mass unit,

a.m.u. u) 1/12 126 C . 1u= 1.6605410-27 Kg.
(=mc) eV. eV
1 Volt.
1 eV = 1,610-19 Joule. 1u = 931.4 MeV/c2

,
. (Plank)
Quantum: (. quanta).

f =hf p=
(Planck 1900)
m u =
:
h = 6.6310-34 Js Planck

hf h
=
c

h
( de Broglie)
mu

. () ().

.
( , )
.
Bohr

1. , ,
. L
h

2
h
L = n , L = n,
2
n=1,2,3
h
=
( h bar)
2
2.
:
hf = E -
: n
: n < n
:

n = 54

o,
2
n

n=1,2,3,

55

m ee4
: , = 2 2
8 h
me, e :
:
h
: Planck
:

rn = ron2, n=1,2,3,
:
r : , r=

h 2
m e e 2

me, e :
:

: =3,14
h
: Planck
(Radioactivity)

.
( decay)
A
Z

A 4
Z 2 Y

+
=
..
238
234
4
92 U 90Th + 2 He

4
2

He

+ (+ decay)

p n +e+ + e ( , )
A
A
+
Z X Z 1Y + e + e

e+ : (positron)
: (neutrino)
..
11
11
+
6 C 5 B + e + e
- (- decay)

n p + e- + e ( , )
A
A
Z X Z +1Y + e + e

e- :
e :
..
234
234
90Th 91 Pa + e + e
( decay)
A
Z

A
Z

X * AZ X +
: ,
X :
*

55

56

=
t
= e-t
:
N : t
: 0,
:
: t -0
,
bequerel

.
t

(half time)

.
ln 2
1/2=

.
= mp + Nmn - M
= mp + Nmn (M me)
: mp, mn, me , ,

EB
EB=c2.
, .

/, ,
. .
56Fe

9
7

4He

235U

1
50

56

100

150

250
200

57

(Nuclear reaction) + +
m = + - - Q=c2
Q>0 .
Q<0 .
(Nuclear fission)

,
>56.
..
235
1
93
140
1
92 U + 0 n 38 Sr + 54 Xe +3 0 n +198,3 MeV
235
92

92
1
U + 01 n 141
56 Ba + 36 Kr +3 0 n +208 MeV

(Nuclear fusion)

<56.
..
3
2
4
1
1 H + 1 H 2 He + 0 n +17,6 MeV
.
- :
1
1
2
+
1 H + 1 H 1 H + e + e
1
2
3
1 H + 1 H 2 He +
1
3
4
+
1 H + 2 He 2 He + e + e

, .

( ).
(proton) (neutron)
(electron), .
( anti-matter).

: , parity, , .
, . p : , p , e-: , e+ :
(). : .. ,
, c=c c , .
[ (bosons): , Bose - Einstein.
(fermions): , Fermi Dirac.
( Pauli),
]
, .
( ).

57

58

(hadron) (lepton) .

(hadrons)
, . : (baryons) 3 quarks, p=uud, (mesons)
quark, antiquark, . +=u d
(leptons)
, ,
.
(force carriers)
4 . ( :
10)
(quark)
. e . ( )
e.
Gell-Mann James Joyce Finnegans wake !
(Quarks) spin=1/2

flavor
GeV/c
u up
d down

0.003
0.006

2/3
-1/3

c charm
s strange
t top
b bottom

1.3
0.1

2/3
-1/3

175
4.3

2/3
-1/3

(Leptons) spin=1/2

flavor
GeV/c
ve
0
<110-8

-1
5,110-4
e
v
0
<210-4
0,106

-1
ve
0
<210-2
1,7771

-1

quark : , , , , ,
quark color ( )
. quark (gluons). , W Z (vector bosons) .

(spin 1)

(gravity)

(electromagnetic)

GeV/c

(weak)

(graviton)

(strong)

(electroweak)

W+
WZ0

GeV/c

80,4
80,4
91,18

+1
-1
0

(photon)

(gluon)
0,
0

quark 3 . : 18 . 6 . 24 .
48 . , standard
model.
58

59

. 4 ,
4 .
, (Grand Unified
Theories) . . (string
superstring theories)

59

60

,
=

-1

-1

(2k+)=
(-)=
(2k+)=
(-)=-
(k+)=
(-)=-
(k+)=
(-)=-
/2 /2

( -)=
( +)=
2
2

( -)=
( +)=-
2
2

( -)=
( +)=-
2
2

( -)=
( +)=-
2
2
2+2 = 1

60

=1

(+)=-
(+)=-
(+)=
(+)=

(-)=-
(-)=
(-)=-
(-)=-

61

0
0

30

6
1
2
3
2
3
3

45

4
2
2
2
2

60

3
3
2
1
2

90

180

270
3
2

360

-1

-1

3
3

x=2k+
x=
x=2k+- x= x=k+

x=
x= x=k+
x=2k

()=
()= m

()=
1 m
m 1
()=

.
3=3-43
3=43-3
3 - 3
3=
1 3 2
3-3
3=
3 2 -1

2
1- 2

2=2

2=

2=2-2
=22-1
=1-22

2 -1
2=
2

2=

1 2
2

2=

1-2
1+2

1 + 2
2

2=

1+2
1-2

2=

-1 x 1, -1 x 1, - x , - x ,

61

62

+
-
+
-
+=2

+=2

2
2
2
2
+ -
+ -

-=2
-=2
2
2
2
2
( + )
( + )
+=
+=

( )
( )
-=
-=

( Werner)
(/2)

2
1
2
= [(-)-(+)]
=

2
1+ 2
1
2
= [(+)+(-)]

2
1- 2
1
2
=
= [(+)+(-)]

2
1+ 2
2

=
=
=2R

, , , , R


2=2+2-2
2=2+2-2
2= 2+ 2-2

x
3
2

-1
-

62

63

3
2

-1

()2=22+
()=3+3
()=4+64+
:
. Pascal

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
. . . . . . . .

:
n
0

n
1

n
2

n
n-1 n n
+
n 1
n

(+)n= n+ n-1+ n-22++

n
n!
( ) n!=123(n-1)n ( )
=
k k !(n k )!
-=(-)(+)
( )
-=(-)(++)
-=(-)(+++)
-=(-)(++++)

-=(-)(-1+-2+-3++-2+-1)
-=(+)(-)
-=(+)(-+-)

2-2=(+)(2-1-2-2+2-32-+2-2-2-1)
+=(+)(-+)
+=(+)(-+-+)

2+1+2+1=(+)(2-2-1+2-22--2-1+2)
( 2+2)
63

64

= 14
24
...3

()=

=+
-
=

-=

( )

: x= x= ,

= ,

= +
1
=
2

=
=
=

x= :



>0
<0

()

+ -

- ()

( )

x= x=log ex= x=ln 10x= x=log

e=2,71828, >0, 1, >0

log()=log+log
loga1=0
log=log
log
logaa=1

1
log( )=log-log
log = log log=
log a
log

a =

=1+(-1), =+1-
S=

1+

=1-1, = +1

S=1 1- , S=1 1 <1

1
1

x+x+=0 =-4
>0
=0
<0

x=
x1,2=
2
2
x + x + = 0 x1 x2

S=
P=

S P
1 2 1 2 :
64

65

x - Sx + P = 0
x+x+
>0
x1 x2

=0
x

<0

x=0
x1

x2

x1

65

66

(Scalar product)
r
r
=(1, 2, 3) =(1, 2, 3) r r
( )

r r
=, 0
r r
r r
= 0

r r
=11+22+33
r r
r r
= ||

(Vector product)
r
r
=(1, 2, 3) =(1, 2, 3) r r
:
r r
r
= n
r

n (n=1)
r
r
r r
r
n

, n
r

(
r
r

n
)
:

r r
i
j
r r
= 1 2
1 2

r r
r r
= -

66

r
k

3
3

r r
r
r
r
= (23-32) i +(13-31) j +( 12-21) k
r r r
r r
= 0 ||

r r
r
r r
= n

67

u (a.m.u.)

Avogadro

NA

Bohr

1.6605410-27 Kg
931.434 MeV/c2
6.0221361023(g mol)-1

Boltzmann

h2
m ee2k
k=R/NA

me

eV
e

1.380710-23 J/K
9.1093910-31 Kg
5.48579910-4 u
0.51099906 MeV/c2
1.60217710-19 J
1.60217710-19 C

8.314510 J/Kmol

6.6725910-11 Nm/Kg

m ee4
= 2 2
8 h

13,605698 eV

mn

1.67492810-27 Kg
1.008664904 u
939.56563 MeV/c2

410-7 /

1
c2

h
Planck

h=

h
2

0,5291810-10 m

8,8518781710-12 C/Nm
6.62607510-34 Js
1.0545726610-34 Js

mp

1.67262310-27 Kg
1.007276470 u
938.2723 MeV/c2

2.99792458108 m/s

67

68

68

69

A , 46
Kirchhoff, 20
, 47
, 26
, 21

, 35
, 32
, 8
, 37
, 57
, 57
, 19
, 19
, 46
Carnot, 49
Avogadro, 44
, 15
, 14
, 43
, 41
, 50
, 25
, 49
Kirchhoff, 20
, 38
, 45
, 50
, 51
, 21
, 54
, 29
, 36
, 38
, 35
, 35
, 23
, 37
, 55
-, 55
+, 55
, 56
, 4
, 38
, 3
, 18
, 51
, 8
Laplace, 24
Lorentz, 24
, 29
, 17, 22
, 45
, 43
, 43
, 52
, 56
, 27

, 27
, 27
, 27
, 27
, 13
, 26
, 15
, 14
, 14
, 29
, 14
, 18
, 45
, 14
, 20
, 14
, 29
, 31
, 14
, 29
, 26
, 56
, 56
, 20
, 44
, 27
, 27
, 19
, 49
, 30
de Broglie, 54
, 33
, 26
, 6
, 12
, 12
, 54
, 13
, 13
, 13
, 13
, 42
, 15
, 13
, 6
- , 6
- , 6
- , 6
, 5
- , 5
- , 5
, 19
, 19

, 31
- , 31
- , 31

69

70

, 17
, 17
, 17
, 16
, 18
, 19
, 20
, 19
, 20
, 19
, 33
, 34
, 33
, 41
, 48
, 46
Steiner-Huygens, 40
, 14
, 42
, 45
, 40
, 44
, 47
, 46
, 39
, 46
, 15
, 28
, 20
, 28
, 11
Lenz, 25
, 23
, 23
, 44
, 54
, 38
, 50
, 52
, 43
, 44
, 41
, 44
, 43
, 11
, 11
, 11
, 11
Newton , 11
, 11
, 11
, 11
, 47

, 29
Carnot, 48
- , 57
RLC, 28
, 42
, 33
70

, 33
, 33
, 54
, 23
, 22
(), 25
, 25

, 22
, 22
, 23
, 23
, 22
, 22
, 4
, 38
, 48
, 3
, 33
, 33
, 14
, 14
, 14
, 3
Bohr, 54

, 44
, 44
, 44
, 44
, 44
, 44
Biot-Savart, 22
Coulomb, 16
Hooke, 8
Von Neumann, 25
(Faraday), 25
, 26
Newton, 9
, 56
Joule, 19
Ohm
, 27
, 20
Snell, 36
, 19
Newton, 9
Newton, 9
Newton, 9
, 36
, 50
, 9
, 10
, 10
, 23
, 4
, 4
, 4
, 4

, 29
, 42
, 43
, 21
, 3
, 18
, 18
, 18
, 57
, 55
, 21
, 40
, 39
, 38
, 39
, 23
Boltzmann, 45
Planck, 54
, 33
, 38
, 38
, 40
, 41
, 33
, 20
, 20
, 20
, 32
, 27
, 8
, 48

71
, 25
, 14

, 30
RLC , 28
- , 29
, 29
, 30
- , 29
, 29

, 30
, 30
, 30
, 5
, 11
, 11
, 50
, 44
, 35

, 9
, 9
, 3
Doppler, 33
, 16
, 16
, 22
, 21
, 56
, 18

71

72

.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
(S.I.) .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
............................................................................................................................................................... 3
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
. ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
x ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
S ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
u (Velocity) .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
............................................................................................................................................................................ 5
................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
............................................................................................................................................ 6
................................................................................................................................................... 7
: ................................................................................................................................................... 8
Hooke .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Newton ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Newton ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Newton ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Newton: ............................................................................................................................................................. 9
: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
:.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
(Momentum) ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
...............................................................................................................................................................10
........................................................................................................................................................................................................11
: ...............................................................................................................................................................................11
:.......................................................................................................................................................................................11
Newton : ............................................................................................................................................11
....................................................................................................................................................................11
- ........................................................................................................................................................................................................13
................................................................................................................................................................................13
F=(x) ...............................................................................................................................................................13
:...........................................................................................................................................................................................................13
( x1 x2) :................................................................................................................................................................13
(Energy) ................................................................................................................................................................................................13
...................................................................................................................................................................13
(Potential Energy) ......................................................................................................................................................14
.....................................................................................................................................................................14
.......................................................................................................................................................................14
........................................................................................................................................................................14
(Kinetic Energy) ..............................................................................................................................................................14
(Conservative) ....................................................................................................................................................14
..............................................................................................................................................................................................14
................................................................................................................................................14
.........................................................................................................................................................14
........................................................................................................................................................................14
.........................................................................................................................................................................15
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................15
: .............................................................................................................................................................15
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................16
q Q (Electric Charge) ..................................................................................................................................................................16
: ...............................................................................................................................................................................................16
Coulomb ..................................................................................................................................................................................................16
(Electric Field) .....................................................................................................................................................................16
(Capacitor) .....................................................................................................................................................................................18
(Direct Current) ...................................................................................................................................................................19
...................................................................................................................................................................................................19
(Electric Current) ................................................................................................................................19
(Electric Cell) .......................................................................................................................................................................19
() ....................................................................................................................................................19
(Resistance) ................................................................................................................................................................19
, Ohm..........................................................................................................................................................................................19
72

73

Joule ..................................................................................................................................................................................................19
..........................................................................................................................................................................20
.......................................................................................................................................................................20
Kirchhoff ........................................................................................................................................................................................20
Kirchhoff .........................................................................................................................................................................................20
Ohm ....................................................................................................................................................20
....................................................................................................................................................................20
............................................................................................................................................................................................................21
.......................................................................................................................................................21
....................................................................................................................................................................................21
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................21
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................21
(Magnetism) ..................................................................................................................................................................................22
............................................................................................................................................................................................22
(Magnetic Field) .............................................................................................................................................................22
..................................................................................................................................................22
Biot-Savart ...............................................................................................................................................................................................22
................................................................................................................................................22
...........................................................................................................................................................23
(Solenoid) ...........................................................................................................................................23
(Permeability of medium) .......................................................................................23
Laplace ..................................................................................................................................................................................................24
Lorentz ....................................................................................................................................................................................................24
(Electromagnetic Induction).................................................................................................................................25
(Magnetic Flux) .............................................................................................................................................................25
(Faraday) .........................................................................................................................................................................25
Lenz ...............................................................................................................................................................................................25
( Von Neumann) ..........................................................................................................................................25
(Self-Induction) ........................................................................................................................................................................25
.............................................................................................................................................................................26
(Mutual Inductance) .............................................................................................................................26
...................................................................................................................................................26
.........................................................................................................................................................................................26
(Alternating Current) ...........................................................................................................................................27
(Effective value) ..................................................................................................................................................27
............................................................................................................................................................................................27
Ohm ..................................................................................................................................27
Z () (Impedance) ................................................................................................................................27
(Capacitance).........................................................................................................................................................27
(Inductance) ..................................................................................................................................................................27
(Resistance) ..............................................................................................................................................................27
........................................................................................................................................................................................27
...............................................................................................................................................................................................27
......................................................................................................................................................................................27
RLC (, , ) .......................................................................................................................................28
(Power) .................................................................................................................................................................28
(Effective Power) .......................................................................................................................................................................28
RLC ...................................................................................................................................................................28
(Periodic Motions) ......................................................................................................................................................................29
(Simple harmonic motion) .........................................................................................................29
.......................................................................................................................................................................................29
(angular frequency) ...........................................................................................................................................29
(Period).............................................................................................................................................................................................29
- ........................................................................................................................................................29
- .............................................................................................................................................................29
...................................................................................................................................................................29
..................................................................................................................................................................29
......................................................................................................................................................................29
() ..................................................................................................................................................29
.....................................................................................................................................30
......................................................................................................................................................................................30
..........................................................................................................................................................................30
........................................................................................................................................................................................30
.....................................................................................................................................................................................32
(Waves) ........................................................................................................................................................................................................33

73

74

(Wave length) ...................................................................................................................................................................33

..........................................................................................................................................................33
................................................................................................................................................................................................33
() (Interference) .......................................................................................................................................33
(Stationary Wave) ................................................................................................................................................................33
Doppler .....................................................................................................................................................33
...................................................................................................................................................................................34
(Reflection) .....................................................................................................................................................................35
.......................................................................................................................................................35
(Refraction) .....................................................................................................................................................................35
n (Refractive Index) .................................................................................................................................................35
................................................................................................................................................................................................36
Snell ....................................................................................................................................................................................................36
(Total internal reflection) ..........................................................................................................................................36
(Dispersion)............................................................................................................................................................................36
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................38
(Center of Mass) ...........................................................................................................38
.......................................................................................................................................................................................38
...............................................................................................................................................................38
..........................................................................................................................................................38
.....................................................................................................................................38
(Moment of Force) .........................................................................................................................................................38
................................................................................................................................................................................39
........................................................................................................................................................................39
(Moment of Inertia) ....................................................................................................................................................39
...................................................................................................................................40
Steiner-Huygens.............................................................................................................................................................................40
L (Angular Momentum) .........................................................................................................................................................40
......................................................................................................................................................................41
..........................................................................................................................................41
..........................................................................................................................................................41
....................................................................................................................................................................41
.................................................................................................................................42
....................................................................................................................42
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................42
.....................................................................................................................................42
.................................................................................................................................42
(Collisions) ............................................................................................................................................................................................43
. ......................................................................................................................................................43
. .......................................................................................................................................................43
. . ..................................................................................................................................................43
(Perfect Gases) ...........................................................................................................................................................................44
........................................................................................................................................................................................................44
.........................................................................................................................................................................44
.........................................................................................................................................................45
..............................................................................................................................................................................45
(Internal Energy) .......................................................................................................................................45
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................46
A ...................................................................................................................................................................46
(Reversible change) .......................................................................................................................................46
..........................................................................................................................................................................................46
.............................................................................................................................................................................................46
..........................................................................................................................................................................................47
.........................................................................................................................................................................................47
.................................................................................................................................................................................................47
..............................................................................................................................................................................48
..............................................................................................................................................................................................48
...........................................................................................................................................48
Carnot ......................................................................................................................................................................................................48
Carnot ................................................................................................................................................................................49
............................................................................................................................................................................49
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......................................................................................................................49
.............................................................................................................................................................................50
(Galileo Galilei 1600 ..) ............................................................................................50
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.............................................................................................................................................................................................54
Bohr ................................................................................................................................54
: ......................................................................................................................................................................54
: ..........................................................................................................................................................................55
(Radioactivity) ..........................................................................................................................................................................55
( decay) ....................................................................................................................................................................................55
+ (+ decay) .................................................................................................................................................................................55
- (- decay) ...................................................................................................................................................................................55
( decay)......................................................................................................................................................................................55
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: X. http://users.altecnet.gr/martheo/

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