Wayne J.

Sohn
Graduate Research Assistant.

Ferdinand Freudenstein
Higgins Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Fellow ASME Department of Mechanical Engineering,

An Application of Dual Graphs to the Automatic Generation of the Kinematic Structures of Mechanisms1
Through the use of dual graphs, a powerful new representation of the kinematic structure of mechanisms has been developed. This permits the development of a highly efficient completely automatic procedure for the computer-generated enumeration of the kinematic structures of mechanisms. As an example, the kinematic structures of one, two and three-degree-of-freedom plane bar linkages with up to four independent loops have been enumerated on a personal computer.

Columbia University,
New York, NY 10027

Introduction Linear graphs have furnished a powerful tool for the analysis of the kinematic structure of mechanisms [5, 6, 8-10, 12, 19, 22, 24, 25, 26], their sketching [15, 17] and creative design [1-4, 7, 11, 13, 14, 16, 23, 27]. The latter involves the generation of the kinematic structures of mechanisms having specified structural characteristics. Current trends in the creative design of mechanisms are increasingly oriented in the direction of the development of expert systems [21]. The conventional graph of a mechanism involves a linear graph in which links are represented by vertices, joints by edges and the edge connection of vertices corresponds to the joint connection of links. In this investigation, we have found that a linear graph, which may be regarded as a dual graph of the conventional graph, offers extraordinary possibilities for the automatic generation of large classes of mechanisms in a computationally efficient manner. In the following, we describe this method and demonstrate its application to plane bar linkages with up to three degrees of freedom. This affords both a check on classical results, as well as an opportunity to establish new results involving large categories of mechanisms. The Dual Graph of a Mechanism (a) Definition. Figure 1(a) shows a plane seven-link mechanism with an input crank (link 5) and an oscillating output crank (link 7), the swing of which is controlled by link 2. In some versions of the linkage, link 7 constitutes a second continuous input for the mechanism. The conventional graph of the mechanism, Fig. 1(b), has
Based in part on the doctoral dissertation of the first author in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the PhD in Mechanical Engineering in the School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University. Contributed by the Mechanisms Committee for presentation at the Design Engineering Technical Conference, Columbus, Ohio, October 5-8, 1986, of THE
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. Manuscript received at ASME

seven vertices (corresponding to the seven links) and eight edges (corresponding to the eight joints). There are three loops: the peripheral loop Ll (defined by vertices 1-2-3-4-5), and the internal loops L2 (defined by vertices 1-2-3-6-7) and L 3 (defined by vertices 3-4-5-1-7-6). Of these, any two loops can be considered as independent. In the dual graph of a mechanism, the vertices represent the loops (independent plus one) of the conventional graph. An edge connects each pair of dual-graph vertices which correspond to loops with one or more common edges. The number of edges in common between two loops in the conventional graph is the label given to the respective edge of the dual graph. The dual graph in Fig. 1(c) has three vertices and three labeled edges corresponding to the number and arrangement of the loops in the conventional graph shown in Fig. 1(b). (b) Properties. We limit the nature of the mechanisms considered in this investigation to mechanisms obeying the general degree-of-freedom equation

F=Ml-J~ D + / ,
where

(1)

F= degree of freedom of the mechanism X = mobility number (X = 3 for plane motions and X = 6 for spatial motions) / = number of links j = number of joints fi = degree of freedom of the /th joint. The foregoing equation applies to mechanisms having only binary joints. The equation can be adapted for other mechanisms by treating joints which connect n links, where n>2, as ( 1) binary joints. In addition, we limit ourselves to mechanisms the graphs of which are polygonal (i.e., planar circuit graphs). Further, we exclude mechanisms consisting of closed kinematic chains Transactions of the ASME

Headquarters, July 1, 1986. Paper No. 86-DET-l.

392/Vol. 108, SEPTEMBER 1986

Copyright 1986 by ASME

Downloaded 18 Feb 2013 to 115.248.114.51. Redistribution subject to ASME license or copyright; see http://www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfm

SWING -ADJUSTMENT

(a)

/^\^-4T~-

w
v

\ ^

V -

V -

INPUT
2

^--1

KQJV
OSCILLATINGOUTPUT

A
a o
A

4
6

(b)
5

'J

o
0

a > iSr

t&
(5)

(c)

Fig. 2

Primary dual graphs with up to seven vertices

F=-UD+ D /,

Id)
Fig. 1

0 2 3 2 0 3 3 3 0
Variable-swing linkage, its graphs and dual graph matrix

where Lfj denotes the total degree-of-freedom of the joints on the common boundary. It follows that the remaining links and joints of the mechanism would then be overconstrained. Hence, to avoid such degenerate cases, it is necessary that

F+\>

Yfi

(6)

which have one common link but no common joints. The conventional graphs of such degenerate mechanisms possess cut vertices. The number of loops (independent plus one) in the graph of a mechanism is denoted by L where L=j-l+2 (2) In this study, we limit ourselves to mechanisms with five loops or less. Every edge in the graph is common to exactly two loops, such that

It follows that each edge label in the dual graph must be less than (F+X). (c) Vertex-Vertex Incidence Matrices. The vertex-vertex incidence matrix of the dual graph of a mechanism is a symmetric matrix of order L in which all diagonal elements (,,) are zero. The matrix of an unlabeled dual graph has every element cijj = 1 or 0 according as vertices / and j are or are not connected by an edge. Incidence matrices corresponding to isomorphic unlabeled dual graphs possess identical characteristic polynomials while nonisomorphic unlabeled dual graphs do not [22, 24, 25]. Every element, ay, of the matrix of a labeled dual graph is equal to the label on the edge connecting vertices / andy, Fig. 1(d). It follows that the sum of the elements in any row or column of this matrix is equal to the number of edges in a loop of the corresponding conventional graph. The minimum number of edges per loop is three. However, in order to avoid overconstraint the minimum number of edges in any loop of the graph of a plane bar linkage is four. Furthermore, the sum of all the elements in the matrix is equal to 2j, as per equation (3). Enumeration of the Dual Graphs of Mechanisms The enumeration of dual-graph matrices proceeds in the following sequence: 1 Enumeration of the vertex-vertex incidence matrices of the unlabeled "primary" dual graphs. 2 Enumeration of the vertex-vertex incidence matrices of the unlabeled "secondary" dual graphs. 3 Enumeration of the vertex-vertex incidence matrices of the labeled dual graphs. Before describing the algorithm for performing the matrix SEPTEMBER 1986, Vol. 108/393

iL, = %j

(3)

where Z,, = number of loops with / edges. The dual graph of a polygonal conventional graph is also polygonal [18]. Further, the dual graph does not have any cut vertices provided there are none in the conventional graph [20]. The dual graph of a mechanism has L vertices and may have any number of edges provided the sum of the edge labels is equal to j . Each edge label corresponds to the number of joints of the common boundary between adjacent loops of the mechanism. Hence, the edge labels are restricted by the condition that the degree of freedom of the links and joints in such a boundary must be less than that of the mechanism as a whole. Consider the degree-of-freedom equation attained by inserting equation (2) into equation (1)

F=-\(L-\)

+ Y, fi

(4)

If the links and joints on the common boundary were independently movable with degree F relative to the rest of the mechanism, we would obtain

Journal of Mechanisms, Transmissions, and Automation in Design

Downloaded 18 Feb 2013 to 115.248.114.51. Redistribution subject to ASME license or copyright; see http://www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfm

PRIMARY

GRAPHS

SECONDARY

GRAPHS

<) Fig. 3
" f

(bl Strings

V = V

= 2;

V = vm=

4:

Fig. 4(a) Creation of primary graph with v- 5, v graph with ir = 5, vm = 5

, 4(b)

4b secondary

operations, it is helpful to discuss their graph-theoretical interpretation. The length of a circuit is defined as the number of vertices in that circuit. Furthermore, the number of vertices in the circuit of maximum length in a dual graph is denoted by vm. The set of all dual graphs with a given number of vertices (i>) can be divided into subsets according to the magnitude of vm. Within each subset the graph or graphs with the minimum number of edges (e) are called primary graphs. The remaining dual graphs in each subset are called secondary graphs. Figure 2 lists all primary graphs with up to seven vertices. Each row in Fig. 2 contains the primary graphs characterized by a given value of v and all the corresponding possible values of vm. These graphs can be generated as follows. Let the path of (n + 1) edges and n vertices, each of which has degree 2, be called a string of length n (Fig. 3). Each of the graphs can be constructed by starting with a single circuit of vm vertices and adding strings of length one or more until the graph has a total of v vertices, (Fig. 4(a)). The length and arrangement of these strings must be such that a circuit the length of which is larger than vm is not created by their addition. It follows that the primary graph with vm = v is a single circuit with e = v edges. Further, a primary graph with vm = v\ has e = v + 1 edges and is constructed by adding a string of length unity to a circuit with (v 1) vertices. The string is connected to any pair of vertices (in the circuit with (v 1) vertices) which are not edge connected. Otherwise, the resulting graph would have v, = v and e = v+1 edges and would thus be a secondary graph, (Fig. 4(b)). As a result, there are no dual graphs with v, = v 1 for v<4. Note that it is possible for there to be two or more graphs with vm - v - 1 for a given value of v, as in the case of v = 7. The first primary graph with vm = v 2 does not occur until v = 6 and is thus beyond the scope of this study. Reference [20] contains the generalization of the aforementioned procedure to primary graphs with vm < v-2. All secondary dual graphs are generated from the primary dual graphs by the addition of edges one at a time, as shown in Fig. 5. Note that the maximum number of edges possible in a graph is v(v- l)/2. Algorithm to Enumerate the Vertex-Vertex Incidence Matrices of Dual Graphs of Mechanisms Given: F, X, j and L, where L<5 and v = L, then: Step 1 Generate Matrix of Unlabeled Primary Graph With v, = v = e.
(a) S e t a / ( J + 1 ) = (/+!),- = 1 for 1 < / <

Fig. 5

Primary and secondary dual graphs

(b) Set! = ul = 1. (c) Equate all other elements to zero. If v < 5, go to Step 3. Step 2
=

Generate Matrix of Unlabeled Primary Graph With

V-

1, e = v +1 and v S. (a) Set a,(,+ 1) = a (/+1); = 1 for 1 < / < (v-2). (b) Set !(_!) = #(-i)i = 1. (c) Seto15 = 5I = a53 = aK = 1. (d) Equate all other elements to zero.
Generate Matrices of Unlabeled Secondary Graphs.

Step 3

(a) Set m = v+l. (b) Choose one of the previously generated matrices of a primary or secondary graph for which e = m 1. (c) Use the matrix chosen in Step 3(b) as a basis for the matrix of a new secondary graph with e = m. (d) Complete the new secondary graph matrix by setting a pair of null elements (ay and ajt, i ^ j) equal to unity. (e) Repeat Steps 3(c) and 3(d) for each pair of null elements in the basic matrix. (f) Repeat Steps 3(b)-3(e) for each matrix of a graph for which e = m \. (g) Eliminate isomorphs from among the matrices generated by Steps 3(b)-3(f) with the aid of their characteristic polynomials. (h) Identify and eliminate nonplanar graphs (method discussed in later section). (/') Repeat Steps 3(b)-3(h) each time increasing the value of m by one from (v + 2) to v(v l)/2 inclusive. Step 4 Generate the Matrices of Labeled Dual Graphs. (a) For each of the matrices generated in Steps 1, 2 and 3, use software incorporating nested loops to vary the value of each pair (a,-, and a,,) of nonzero elements from 1 to ( F + X - 1) inclusive (in this manner all possible labeling combinations are generated). (b) Eliminate the matrices which do not have (7) and Transactions of the ASME

(v-l).

394/ Vol. 108, SEPTEMBER 1986

Downloaded 18 Feb 2013 to 115.248.114.51. Redistribution subject to ASME license or copyright; see http://www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfm

0 2 2 0 3

2 0 2 0 0

2 2 0 2 0

0 2 0

3 0 2

0 0
8o Fig. 8 8b Completion of first internal loop 8c

2 0

Fig. 6

Dual-graph matrix

Fig. 9

Completion of second internal loop

Fig. 7

Peripheral loop

v Y^Oij^k
y'=i

for

\<i<v

(8)

where, in general, = 3 , while for plane bar linkages k = 4. The remaining matrices define a set of dual graphs which correspond to all possible mechanisms with a prescribed set of structural characteristics (i.e., F, A, L, j , I). Generation of the Conventional Graphs of Mechanisms From the Matrices of the Labeled Dual Graphs In order to sketch a conventional graph which corresponds to the incidence matrix of a given dual graph, it is necessary to establish the number and identity of the edges shared between each of the loops in the conventional graph. This information is extracted efficiently from the incidence matrix of the dual graph if the corresponding conventional graph is sketched according to the following procedure: Step 1 Sketch the edges and vertices of the peripheral loop. Step 2 Sketch the edges and vertices necessary to complete an internal loop which is "continuously attached" to the peripheral loop. Step 3 Sketch the edges and vertices necessary to complete an internal loop which is continuously attached and, if possible, "uniquely attached" to the previously completed loops. Step 4 Repeat Step 3 until all edges and vertices are sketched. This procedure is the basis for the algorithm used to generate the incidence matrices of the conventional graphs of mechanisms. Figures 7-10 illustrate this sketching process as applied to the dual-graph incidence matrix shown in Fig. 6. (L, is used to denote the loop which corresponds to the z'th row in this matrix.) The details and theory pertaining to each step in the sketching process are as follows: Step I The Peripheral Loop Let the loop which has the greatest number of edges be the peripheral loop. This facilitates sketching the graph in a wellproportioned manner. The sketch of peripheral loop L, is

10a
Fig. 10

10b

Conventional graphs corresponding to matrix of Fig. 6

shown in Fig. 7. Henceforth, any loop for which all edges and vertices have been sketched will be referred to as a developed loop. Similarly, a loop having at least one edge not sketched is referred to as undeveloped. Step 2 The First Internal Loop The theory pertaining to this step is best introduced through the following example. The second row of the incidence matrix in Fig. 6 indicates that loop L2 has two of its four edges in common with the peripheral loop (Lt). Consistent with this requirement, Figs. 8(a-c) show the three nonisomorphic ways that edges and vertices can be added to the peripheral loop so as to complete loop L2. To determine which is the correct sketch of loop L2, additional information must be derived from the incidence matrix of the dual graph. Note that the undeveloped loops, L3, L4, and L5, will be developed within the shaded areas. In both Figs. 8(b, c), the shaded areas are split into two parts (A and B) by loop L2. Clearly, the loops in area A have no edges in common with those in area B. However, the fourth row of the incidence matrix indicates that loop L4 shares edges with both loops Z-3 and L5. It follows that Fig. 8(a) shows the correct completion of loop L2. Only if loop L2 is correctly completed is it possible to develop the remaining loops in accordance with the information in the dualgraph matrix. The method used in the previous example to determine the correct completion of loop L2 is the test for continuous attachment. If the sketched edges and vertices of an undeveloped loop form a continuous path, the loop is said to be continuously attached to the developed loops. This continuous path is referred to as the attachment path. A continuously attached loop is completed by sketching a string between the verSEPTEMBER 1986, Vol. 108/395

Journal of Mechanisms, Transmissions, and Automation in Design

Downloaded 18 Feb 2013 to 115.248.114.51. Redistribution subject to ASME license or copyright; see http://www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfm

tices at the ends of the attachment path. To ascertain if an undeveloped loop, Lk, is continuously attached, the relationship between the other undeveloped loops must be investigated. If these other loops cannot be split into two groups with the loops in one group having no common edges with the loops in the other, loop Lk is a continuously attached loop. The information necessary to complete this test is built into the incidence matrix of the dual graph. By performing the test for continuous attachment before completing each of the internal loops, many incorrect ways of completing these loops can be instantly identified. Each continuous-attachment test can thus supersede many relatively long and unsuccessful attempts to complete the graph. Note that the continuous-attachment test does not necessarily eliminate all the incorrect ways to complete a loop. In general, the vast majority of ways to complete a loop in accordance with its corresponding row in the dual-graph matrix do not meet the requirement for a continuously attached loop (i.e., they have no attachment paths). It follows that if a loop is determined to be continuously attached, most, if not all, of the incorrect ways to complete the loop are identified. Conversely, if a loop is determined to be discontinuously attached, very few incorrect ways are identified and, in general, many still remain. There is always at least one continuously attached loop among the undeveloped loops of a planar graph. Thus, at every step in the sketching process, choose a loop that is continuously attached from among the undeveloped loops and complete the loop accordingly. If at any step a choice remains as to the completion of the loop, each possibility must be tried to determine which are correct. Note that there is always only one way to complete the first (continuously attached) internal loop. As a result of the aforementioned discussion, nonplanar dual graphs can be identified by the fact that in the process of generating a corresponding conventional graph, a point is reached when there are no continuously attached undeveloped loops.

Algorithm to Enumerate the Vertex-Vertex Incidence Matrices of Conventional Graphs of Mechanisms The vertex-vertex incidence matrix of a conventional graph of a mechanism is a symmetric matrix of order / with elements bjj = 0 and elements by = 1 or 0 according as vertices / and j are or are not connected by an edge. In each step of the following process, let n, m, and p be defined as follows: n = number of edges in the loop being developed. m = number of edges shared with previously developed loops. p = total number of vertices in previously developed loops. Given the incidence matrix of a labeled dual graph, the algorithm is as follows: Step 1 Develop Peripheral Loop of Conventional Graph. (a) (b) (c) Choose largest loop. Set Z>,-(,-+1) = bu+i)i = 1 for 1 < i < Setbln = bi = 1. n-1.

Step 2 Develop First Internal Loop. (a) Choose a continuously attached undeveloped loop. (b) Set va = 1 and vb = m+1 where v and vb denote the vertices at the ends of the attachment path. (c) If (n-m) > 1, go to Step 2(d). Set b = 6 = 1. Go to Step 3. (d) Setd a ( p + 1 ) = b{p+iK = 1. (e) If (n-m) < 3, go to Step 2(f). Set bw+1)= bu+l)i= for (p + 1) < /' < k where k = p + n m-2. (f) Set b k = bkv = 1 where k = p + n m-1. Step 3 Develop Remaining Internal Loops. (a) Choose a continuously attached and preferably uniquely attached undeveloped loop. (b) Identify one attachment path (i.e., va, vb). (c) Same as Steps 2(c-f). (d) Repeat Steps 3(a-c) for each internal loop until graph is complete. Repeat Steps 1-3 if any of the internal loops are not uniquely attached. Continue until every combination of attachment paths has been tried. In this way, all the matrices of conventional graphs which correspond to the matrix of the labeled dual graph are generated. Further, this procedure can be repeated for all dual-graph matrices corresponding to mechanisms with a prescribed set of structural characteristics (i.e.,F, \,LJ, I). Historically, the development of heuristic isomorphism testing algorithms has relied on a set of distinguishing criteria which taken together are sufficient to determine isomorphism. In this investigation, the following criteria were used to eliminate isomorphs from among the conventional graphs generated: (a) Conventional graphs with different characteristic polynomials cannot be isomorphic. (b) Conventional graphs with L<6 [20] generated from nonisomorphic unlabeled dual graphs cannot be isomorphic. Hence, conventional graphs, the dual graphs of which have different characteristic polynomials, cannot be isomorphic. (c) Dual graphs must have the same unordered set of labels to be capable of generating isomorphic conventional graphs [20]. Note that nonisomorphic labeled dual graphs can generate isomorphic conventional graphs. Figures 11 (a, d) show nonisomorphic labeled dual graphs while Figs. ll(b, e) show the corresponding isomorphic conventional graphs and Figs. ll(c, f) show the corresponding mechanisms. Transactions of the ASME 1

Step 3 The Remaining Internal Loops The number of ways in which a continuously attached loop can be completed is equal to the number of attachment paths. If there is only one attachment path, the loop is called uniquely attached. Preference in the sketching sequence is always given to uniquely attached loops since their completion is obviously correct. As an example, consider the completion of the graph in Fig. 8(a). Of the three undeveloped loops, L3, L4, and L5, only loopL 4 is discontinuously attached (i.e., loops i 3 andZ 5 have no common edges). Further, both loops L3 and L5 are continuously but not uniquely attached. Figures 9(a, b) show the two ways to complete loop L} (attachment paths 7-1-8-3-4 and 6-7-1-8-3). Note that after loop L3 is completed, loop L4 becomes reclassified as a continuously attached loop. Further, loop L4 becomes uniquely attached since there is only one attachment path in both Fig. 9(a) (7-9-4) and Fig. 9(b) (6-9-3). Figures W(a, b) show the addition of loop L4 to Figs. 9(a, b), respectively. Note that by completing loop L4, loop L5 was also completed. This is due to the fact that there are only four independent loops in the graph. Hence, Figs. 10(, b) show two nonisomorphic conventional graphs which both correspond to the matrix in Fig. 6. This example demonstrates the fact that a 1:1 correspondence between labeled dual graphs and conventional graphs does not always exist. However, by using the continuous attachment test, it is possible to generate in an efficient manner all the nonisomorphic conventional graphs which correspond to a given dual graph. 396/Vol. 108, SEPTEMBER 1986

Downloaded 18 Feb 2013 to 115.248.114.51. Redistribution subject to ASME license or copyright; see http://www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfm

Fig. 12

Overconstrained subgraphs

(b)

(e)

(C) Fig. 11

(f)

Fig. 13

Four-loop two-degree-of-freedom linkages and their graphs

Two dual graphs corresponding to one eight-bar linkage

(a)

The enumeration is completed by eliminating conventional graphs with overconstrained subgraphs. In the case of plane bar linkages with up to five loops, these subgraphs are shown in Fig. 12. Software is used to search the incidence matrices of the conventional graphs for the existence of these subgraphs. Results Table 1 shows some results in the enumeration of plane bar linkages with up to three degrees of freedom and five loops. The kinematic structure of each of these linkages was generated automatically on a personal computer. The singledegree-of-freedom results serve as a check on known results, the most comprehensive of which are the 219 planar, five-loop linkages determined by L. S. Woo [23]. In the category of four-loop, two-degree-of-freedom linkages, the resulting linkages include those of F. R. E. Crossley [2], as well as three other linkages shown in Fig. 13. The results for the enumeration of the 80 three-degree-of-freedom linkages and the 726 five-loop, two-degree-of-freedom linkages are believed to be new. The latter enumeration is indicative of the power of the dual-graph approach. Out of the more than 1000 conventional graphs generated in this study, their characteristic polynomials failed to distinguish between graphs only three times. Figure 14(a) shows a pair of nonisomorphic, five-loop, single-degree-offreedom graphs with their common characteristic polynomial. Similarly, Figs. 14(b, c) show two pairs of nonisomorphic, five-loop, two-degree-of-freedom graphs with their respective characteristic polynomials. The distinguishing characteristic

CHARACTERISTIC 1 0 -13 0

POLYNOMIAL 53 -8

COEFFICIENTS: 26 39 -16

-82

(b)

CHARACTERISTIC -1 0 14 0

POLYNOMIAL COEFFICIENTS: -65 0 130 0 -112 0 32

(c)

CHARACTERISTIC -1 0 14 O

POLYNOMIAL COEFFICIENTS: -67 8 138 -36 the -120 44 36 -16

Fig. 14 Nonisomorphic polynomial

graphs

having

same

characteristic

Journal of Mechanisms, Transmissions, and Automation in Design

SEPTEMBER 1986, Vol. 108/397

Downloaded 18 Feb 2013 to 115.248.114.51. Redistribution subject to ASME license or copyright; see http://www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfm

Table 1 Number of plane bar linkages as a function of the number of loops, L, and the degree of freedom, F
L F
1 2 3 1 1 1 2 3 5 16 35 74 219 726 2 3 4 5

in the Number Synthesis of Plane Mechanisms," ASME JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR INDUSTRY, pp. 1-5.

3 Crossley, F. R. E., 1965, "The Permutations of Kinematic Chains of Eight Members or Less From the Graph-Theoretic Viewpoint," Developments in Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Vol. 2, Pergamon Press, pp. 467-486. 4 Datseris, P., and Palm, W., 1984, "Principles of the Development of Mechanical Hands Which Can Manipulate Objects by Means of Active Control," ASME JOURNAL OF MECHANISMS, TRANSMISSIONS AND AUTOMATION IN

betwen the two graphs in all three of these pairs is that they are generated from nonisomorphic unlabeled dual graphs. Discussion The dual graph is a concise and powerful representation of the kinematic structure of mechanisms. It is based on the realization that the number and arrangement of the loops and of the common elements (links and joints) between adjacent loops constitute basic characteristics which serve to define the structure of a mechanism. The dual-graph representation is compact in that dual graphs with L vertices represent mechanisms with / links (in the case of single-degree-of-freedom bar linkages, for example, L = 1/2). In terms of matrix representation this involves (LxL) rather than (/x /) matrices and correspondingly more compact and efficient information storage and data processing. Fourteen unlabeled dual graphs (Fig. 5) characterize the loop arrangements of all mechanisms with up to five loops regardless of degree of freedom, number of links and loops, mobility and joint type. The structure of any mechanism is obtained by labeling the latter according to joint type. In this way, 14 unlabeled dual graphs can generate the kinematic structure of any desired category of mechanism. The dual-graph concept is also potentially advantageous in the development of an expert-systems approach to mechanisms design, for example, in checking isomorphism and in the development of algorithms for automatic sketching and dimensioning. Conclusion The concept of the dual graph of a mechanism, as defined in this investigation, has been shown to be a powerful tool in the computer-aided generation of large classes of mechanisms in the conceptual design stage, thereby enhancing the creative potential of the design engineer and nonspecialist involved in production design and development. Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the General Motors Research Laboratories for the support of this research through a research contract. The first author is also grateful to the National Science Foundation for a Graduate Fellowship. References
1 Buchsbaum, F., and Freudenstein, F., 1970, "Synthesis of Kinematic Structure of Geared Kinematic Chains and Other Mechanisms," J. Mechanisms and Machine Theory, Vol. 5, pp. 357-392. 2 Crossley, F. R. E., February 1964, "A Contribution to Gruebler's Theory

DESIGN, Vol. 107, No. 2, pp. 148-156. 5 Davies, T. H., 1968, " A n Extension of Manolescu's Classification of Planar Kinematic Chains and Mechanisms of Mobility M > 1, Using Graph Theory," J. Mechanisms and Machine Theory, Vol. 3, 1967, pp. 87-100. 6 Dobrjanskyj, L., and Freudenstein, F., 1967, "Some Applications of Graph Theory to the Structural Analysis of Mechanisms," ASME JOURNAL OF
ENGINEERING FOR INDUSTRY, Vol. 89, pp. 153-158.

7 Erdman, A. G., and Bowen, J., December 1981, "Type and Dimensional Synthesis of Casement Window Mechanisms," Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 103, pp. 46-55. 8 Freudenstein, F., and Dobrjanskyj, L., 1965, "On a Theory for the Type Synthesis of Mechanisms," Proceedings 11th Int'l Congress of Applied Mechanics, Springer, pp. 420-428. 9 Freudenstein, F., 1971, "An Application of Boolean Algebra to the Motion of Epicyclic Drives," ASME JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR INDUSTRY, Vol. 93, pp. 176-182. 10 Freudenstein, F., and Maki, E. R., 1979, "The Creation of Mechanisms According to Kinamatic Structure and Function," J. Environment and Planning, Vol. 6, pp. 357-391. 11 Freudenstein, F., and Maki, E. R., June 1983, "Development of an Optimum Variable-Stroke Internal-Combustion Engine from the Viewpoint of Kinematic Structure," ASME JOURNAL OF MECHANISMS, TRANSMISSIONS AND
AUTOMATIONS IN DESIGN, Vol. 105, No. 2, pp. 259-266.

12 Freudenstein, F . , and Woo, L. S., 1974, "Kinematic Structure of Mechanisms," Basic Questions of Design Theory, North-Holland, Amsterdam, pp. 141-164. 13 Huang, M., and Soni, A. H., 1973, "Application of Linear and NonLinear Graphs in Structural Synthesis of Kinematic Chains," ASME JOURNAL
OF ENGINEERING FOR INDUSTRY, Vol. 95, pp. 525-532.

14 Kiper, G., 1982, Katalog Einfachster Getriebebauformen, SpringerVerlag. 15 Mayourian, M., 1985, "Partial Automation of the Creation of Mechanisms According to the Separation of Kinematic Structure and Function," Doctoral dissertation, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University. 16 Mayourian, M., and Freudenstein, F., December 1984, "The Development of an Atlas of the Kinematic Structures of Mechanisms," ASME JOURNAL
OF MECHANISMS, TRANSMISSIONS AND AUTOMATIONS IN DESIGN, Vol. 106, pp.

458-461. 17 Olson, D. G., Thompson, T. R., Riley, D. R., and Erdman, A. G., Marcy 1985, "An Algorithm for Automatic Sketching of Planar Kinematic Chains,"
ASME JOURNAL OF MECHANISMS, TRANSMISSIONS AND AUTOMATIONS IN DESIGN,

Vol. 107, pp. 106-112. 18 Ore, O., Graphs and Their Uses, Random House, New York. 19 Pugh, J. T., September 1982, " A Symbolic Notation for Systematic Enumeration of Planar Mechanisms," ASME Paper 82-DET-31. 20 Sohn, W. J., 1986, "On the Algorithms in an Expert-Systems Approach for the Design of Mechanisms," Doctoral dissertation, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University. 21 Thompson, T. R., Riley, D. R., and Erdman, A. G., August 1985, "An Expert Systems Approach to Type Synthesis," ASME Computer Engineering Conference, Boston, MA. 22 Uicker, J. J., and Raicu, A., 1975, "A Method for the Identification and Recognition of Equivalence of Kinematic Chains," J. Mechanisms and Machine Theory, Vol. 10, pp. 375-383. 23 Woo, L. S., 1967, "Type Synthesis of Planar Linkages," ASME Journal of Engineering for Industry, Vol. 89, pp. 159-172. 24 Yan, H. S., and Hall, A. S., 1981, "Linkage Characteristic Definitions, Coefficients by Inspection," ASME Journal of Mechanical Design, Vol. 103, pp. 578-584. 25 Yan, H. S., and Hall, A. S., 1982, "Linkage Characteristic Polynomials: Assembly, Theorems, Uniqueness," ASME Journal of Mechanical Design, Vol. 104, pp. 11-20. 26 Yan, H. S., and Hwang, W. M., 1983, " A Method for Identification of Planar Linkages," ASME JOURNAL OF MECHANISMS, TRANSMISSIONS AND
AUTOMATIONS IN DESIGN, Vol. 105, pp. 658-662.

27 Yan, H. S., and Chen, J. J., September 1983, "Creative Design of a Wheel-Damping Mechanism," Proceedings of the 8th OSU Applied Mechanisms Conference, St. Louis, MO, pp. 74-1 to 74-5.

398 / Vol. 108, SEPTEMBER 1986

Transactions of the ASME

Downloaded 18 Feb 2013 to 115.248.114.51. Redistribution subject to ASME license or copyright; see http://www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfm