1421_1695390983515

Power System Analysis-2 (17EE71) 2020-21
MODULE-1
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
1. INTRODUCTION
The solution of a given linear network problem requires the formation of a set of equations
describing the response of the network. The mathematical model so derived, must describe
the characteristics of the individual network components, as well as the relationship which
governs the interconnection of the individual components. In the bus frame of reference
the variables are the node voltages and node currents. The independent variables in any
reference frame can be either currents or voltages. Correspondingly, the coefficient matrix
relating the dependent variables and the independent variables will be either an impedance
or admittance matrix. The formulation of the appropriate relationships between the
independent and dependent variables is an integral part of a digital computer program for
the solution of power system problems. The formulation of the network equations in
different frames of reference requires the knowledge of graph theory. Elementary graph
theory concepts are presented here, followed by development of network equations in the
bus frame of reference.
1.1 ELEMENTARY LINEAR GRAPH THEORY: IMPORTANT TERMS
The geometrical interconnection of the various branches of a network is called the

topology of the network. The connection of the network topology, shown by replacing all
its elements by lines is called a graph. A linear graph consists of a set of objects called
nodes and another set called elements such that each element is identified with an ordered
pair of nodes. An element is defined as any line segment of the graph irrespective of the
characteristics of the components involved. A graph in which a direction is assigned to
each element is called an oriented graph or a directed graph. It is to be noted that the
directions of currents in various elements are arbitrarily assigned and the network
equations are derived, consistent with the assigned directions. Elements are indicated by
numbers and the nodes by encircled numbers. The ground node is taken as the reference
node. In electric networks the convention is to use associated directions for the voltage
drops. This means the voltage drop in a branch is taken to be in the direction of the current
through the branch. Hence, we need not mark the voltage polarities in the oriented graph.
Connected Graph : This is a graph where at least one path (disregarding orientation)
exists between any two nodes of the graph. A representative power system and its oriented
graph are as shown in Fig 1, with:
e = number of elements = 6
n = number of nodes = 4
b = number of branches = n-1 = 3
l = number of links = e-b = 3
Tree = T(1,2,3) and
Co-tree = T(4,5,6)
Sub-graph : sG is a sub-graph of G if the following conditions are satisfied:
· sG is itself a graph
· Every node of sG is also a node of G
· Every branch of sG is a branch of G
Department of EEE, ATMECE

For eg., sG(1,2,3), sG(1,4,6), sG(2), sG(4,5,6), sG(3,4),.. are all valid sub-graphs of
the oriented graph of Fig.1c.
Loop : A sub-graph L of a graph G is a loop if

· L is a connected sub-graph of G
· Precisely two and not more/less than two branches are incident on each node in L
In Fig 1c, the set{1,2,4} forms a loop, while the set{1,2,3,4,5} is not a valid, although
the set(1,3,4,5) is a valid loop. The KVL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law) for the loop is
stated as follows: In any lumped network, the algebraic sum of the branch voltages
around any of the loops is zero.
Fig 1a. Single line diagram of a power system
Fig 1b. Reactance diagram

Fig 1c. Oriented Graph
Cutset : It is a set of branches of a connected graph G which satisfies the following

conditions :
· The removal of all branches of the cutset causes the remaining graph to have two
separate unconnected sub-graphs.
· The removal of all but one of the branches of the set, leaves the remaining graph
connected.
Referring to Fig 1c, the set {3,5,6} constitutes a cutset since removal of them isolates node
3 from rest of the network, thus dividing the graph into two unconnected subgraphs.
However, the set(2,4,6) is not a valid cutset! The KCL (Kirchhoff’s Current Law) for the
cutset is stated as follows: In any lumped network, the algebraic sum of all the branch
currents traversing through the given cutset branches is zero.
Tree: It is a connected sub-graph containing all the nodes of the graph G, but
without any closed paths (loops). There is one and only one path between every pair of
nodes in a tree. The elements of the tree are called twigs or branches. In a graph with n
nodes,
The number of branches: b = n-1 (1)

For the graph of Fig 1c, some of the possible trees could be T(1,2,3), T(1,4,6), T(2,4,5),
T(2,5,6), etc.
Co-Tree : The set of branches of the original graph G, not included in the tree is called the
co-tree. The co-tree could be connected or non-connected, closed or open. The branches of
the co-tree are called links. By convention, the tree elements are shown as solid lines while
the co-tree elements are shown by dotted lines as shown in Fig.1c for tree T(1,2,3). With e
as the total number of elements,
The number of links: l = e – b = e – n + 1 (2)
For the graph of Fig 1c, the co-tree graphs corresponding to the various tree graphs are as
shown in the table below:

Basic loops: When a link is added to a tree it forms a closed path or a loop. Addition of
each subsequent link forms the corresponding loop. A loop containing only one link and
remaining branches is called a basic loop or a fundamental loop. These loops are defined
for a particular tree. Since each link is associated with a basic loop, the number of basic
loops is equal to the number of links.
Basic cut-sets: Cut-sets which contain only one branch and remaining links are called
basic cutsets or fundamental cut-sets. The basic cut-sets are defined for a particular tree.
Since each branch is associated with a basic cut-set, the number of basic cut-sets is equal
to the number of branches.
1.2 Examples on Basics of LG Theory:
Example-1: Obtain the oriented graph for the system shown in Fig. E1. Select any four
possible trees. For a selected tree show the basic loops and basic cut-sets.
Fig. E1a. Single line diagram of Example System
Fig. E1b. Oriented Graph of Fig. E1a.

For the system given, the oriented graph is as shown in figure E1b. some of the valid Tree
graphs could be T(1,2,3,4), T(3,4,8,9), T(1,2,5,6), T(4,5,6,7), etc. The basic cutsets
(A,B,C,D) and basic loops (E,F,G,H,I) corresponding to the oriented graph of Fig.E1a and
tree, T(1,2,3,4) are as shown in Figure E1c and Fig.E1d respectively.
Fig. E1c. Basic Cutsets of Fig. E1a.
Fig. E1d. Basic Loops of Fig. E1a.
1.3 INCIDENCE MATRICES
Element–node incidence matrix: Aˆ

The incidence of branches to nodes in a connected graph is given by the element-node

incidence matrix,Aˆ .
An element aij of Aˆ is defined as under:
aij = 1 if the branch-i is incident to and oriented away from the node-j.
= -1 if the branch-i is incident to and oriented towards the node-j.
= 0 if the branch-i is not at all incident on the node-j.
Thus the dimension of Aˆ is en, where e is the number of elements and n is the number
of nodes in the network. For example, consider again the sample system with its oriented
graph as in fig. 1c. the corresponding element-node incidence matrix, is obtained as under:
It is to be noted that the first column and first row are not part of the actual matrix and
they only indicate the element number node number respectively as shown. Further, the
sum of every row is found to be equal to zero always. Hence, the rank of the matrix is less
than n. Thus in general, the matrix Aˆ satisfies the identity:
1.4 Bus incidence matrix: A
By selecting any one of the nodes of the connected graph as the reference node, the
corresponding column is deleted from Aˆ to obtain the bus incidence matrix, A. The
dimensions of A are e (n-1) and the rank is n-1. In the above example, selecting node-0 as
reference node, the matrix A is obtained by deleting the column corresponding to node-0,
as under:

It may be observed that for a selected tree, say, T(1,2,3), the bus incidence matrix can be
so arranged that the branch elements occupy the top portion of the A-matrix followed by
the link elements. Then, the matrix-A can be partitioned into two sub matrices Ab and Al
as shown, where,
(i) Ab is of dimension (bxb) corresponding to the branches and
(ii) Al is of dimension (lxb) corresponding to links.
A is a rectangular matrix, hence it is singular. Ab is a non-singular square matrix of

dimension-b. Since A gives the incidence of various elements on the nodes with their
direction of incidence, the KCL for the nodes can be written as
AT i = 0 (4)
where AT is the transpose of matrix A and i is the vector of branch currents. Similarly for
the branch voltages we can write,
v = A bus E (5)
Examples on Bus Incidence Matrix:
Example-2: For the sample network-oriented graph shown in Fig. E2, by selecting a tree,
T(1,2,3,4), obtain the incidence matrices A and Aˆ . Also show the partitioned form of the
matrix-A.

Fig. E2. Sample Network-Oriented Graph
Corresponding to the Tree, T(1,2,3,4), matrix-A can be partitioned into two submatrices
as under:

Example-3: For the sample-system shown in Fig. E3, obtain an oriented graph. By
selecting a tree, T(1,2,3,4), obtain the incidence matrices A andAˆ . Also show the
partitioned form of the matrix-A.
Consider the oriented graph of the given system as shown in figure E3b, below.

Fig. E3b. Oriented Graph of system of Fig-E3a.
Corresponding to the oriented graph above and a Tree, T(1,2,3,4), the incidence matrices •
and A can be obtained as follows:
Corresponding to the Tree, T(1,2,3,4), matrix-A can be partitioned into two submatrices
as under:

1.4 PRIMITIVE NETWORKS

So far, the matrices of the interconnected network have been defined. These matrices
contain complete information about the network connectivity, the orientation of current,
the loops and cutsets. However, these matrices contain no information on the nature of the
elements which form the interconnected network. The complete behaviour of the network
can be obtained from the knowledge of the behaviour of the individual elements which
make the network, along with the incidence matrices. An element in an electrical network
is completely characterized by the relationship between the current through the element
and the voltage across it.
General representation of a network element: In general, a network element may

contain active or passive components. Figure 2 represents the alternative impedance and
admittance forms of representation of a general network component.
Fig.2 Representation of a primitive network element (a) Impedance form (b)

Admittance form
The network performance can be represented by using either the impedance or the
admittance form of representation. With respect to the element, p-q, let,
vpq = voltage across the element p-q,
epq = source voltage in series with the element p-q,
ipq= current through the element p-q,

jpq= source current in shunt with the element p-q,

zpq= self impedance of the element p-q and
ypq= self admittance of the element p-q.
Performance equation: Each element p-q has two variables, Vpq and ipq. The
performance of the given element p-q can be expressed by the performance equations as
under:
vpq + epq = zpqipq (in its impedance form)

ipq + jpq = ypqvpq (in its admittance form) (6)
Thus the parallel source current jpq in admittance form can be related to the series source
voltage, epq in impedance form as per the identity:
jpq = - ypq epq (7)
A set of non-connected elements of a given system is defined as a primitive Network and
an element in it is a fundamental element that is not connected to any other element. In the
equations above, if the variables and parameters are replaced by the corresponding vectors
and matrices, referring to the complete set of elements present in a given system, then, we
get the performance equations of the primitive network in the form as under:
v + e = [z] i
i + j = [y] v (8)
Primitive network matrices:

A diagonal element in the matrices, [z] or [y] is the self impedance zpq-pq or self
admittance, ypq-pq. An off-diagonal element is the mutual impedance, zpq-rs or mutual
admittance, ypq-rs, the value present as a mutual coupling between the elements p-q and r-
s. The primitive network admittance matrix, [y] can be obtained also by inverting the
primitive impedance matrix, [z]. Further, if there are no mutually coupled elements in the
given system, then both the matrices, [z] and [y] are diagonal. In such cases, the self
impedances are just equal to the reciprocal of the corresponding values of self
admittances, and vice-versa.
Examples on Primitive Networks:
Example-4: Given that the self impedances of the elements of a network referred by the
bus incidence matrix given below are equal to: Z1=Z2=0.2, Z3=0.25, Z4=Z5=0.1 and
Z6=0.4 units, draw the corresponding oriented graph, and find the primitive network
matrices. Neglect mutual values between the elements.

Solution:
The element node incidence matrix, Aˆ can be obtained from the given A matrix, by pre-
augmenting to it an extra column corresponding to the reference node, as under.
Based on the conventional definitions of the elements of Aˆ , the oriented graph can be
formed as under:

Fig. E4 Oriented Graph
Thus the primitive network matrices are square, symmetric and diagonal matrices of
order e=no. of elements = 6. They are obtained as follows.
Example-5: Consider three passive elements whose data is given in Table E5 below.
Form the primitive network impedance matrix.

Table E5
Solution:
Note:
· The size of [z] is e´ e, where e= number of elements,
· The diagonal elements are the self impedances of the elements
· The off-diagonal elements are mutual impedances between the corresponding elements.
· Matrices [z] and [y] are inter-invertible.

NETWORK MATRICES
2. FORMATION OF YBUS AND ZBUS
The bus admittance matrix, YBUS plays a very important role in computer aided power
system analysis. It can be formed in practice by either of the methods as under:
1. Rule of Inspection
2. Singular Transformation
3. Non-Singular Transformation
4. ZBUS Building Algorithms, etc.
The performance equations of a given power system can be considered in three different
frames of reference as discussed below:
Frames of Reference:
Bus Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of buses) relating the
bus vectors of currents and voltages through the bus impedance matrix and bus admittance
matrix:
EBUS = ZBUS IBUS

IBUS = YBUS EBUS (9)
Branch Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a
selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and
voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:
EBR = ZBR IBR

IBR = YBR EBR (10)
Loop Frame of Reference: There are b independent equations (b = no. of branches of a
selected Tree sub-graph of the system Graph) relating the branch vectors of currents and
voltages through the branch impedance matrix and branch admittance matrix:
ELOOP = ZLOOP ILOOP

ILOOP = YLOOP ELOOP (11)
Of the various network matrices refered above, the bus admittance matrix (YBUS) and the
bus impedance matrix (ZBUS) are determined for a given power system by the rule of
inspection as explained next.
2.1 Rule of Inspection
Consider the 3-node admittance network as shown in figure5. Using the basic branch
relation: I = (YV), for all the elemental currents and applying Kirchhoff’s Current
Law principle at the nodal points, we get the relations as under:
At node 1: I1 =Y1V1 + Y3 (V1-V3) + Y6 (V1 – V2)

At node 2: I2 =Y2V2 + Y5 (V2-V3) + Y6 (V2 – V1)

At node 3: 0 = Y3 (V3-V1) + Y4V3 + Y5 (V3 – V2) (12)
Fig. 3 Example System for finding YBUS
These are the performance equations of the given network in admittance form and
they can be represented in matrix form as:
In other words, the relation of equation (9) can be represented in the form
Where, YBUS is the bus admittance matrix, IBUS & EBUS are the bus current and bus
voltage vectors respectively. By observing the elements of the bus admittance matrix,
YBUS of equation (13), it is observed that the matrix elements can as well be obtained by
a simple inspection of the given system diagram:
Diagonal elements: A diagonal element (Yii) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS, is
equal to the sum total of the admittance values of all the elements incident at the bus/node
i,
Off Diagonal elements: An off-diagonal element (Yij) of the bus admittance matrix,
YBUS, is equal to the negative of the admittance value of the connecting element present
between the buses I and j, if any. This is the principle of the rule of inspection. Thus the
algorithmic equations for the rule of inspection are obtained as:
Yii = S yij (j = 1,2,…….n)

Yij = - yij (j = 1,2,…….n) (15)
For i = 1,2,….n, n = no. of buses of the given system, yij is the admittance of element
connected between buses i and j and yii is the admittance of element connected between
bus i and ground (reference bus).

2.2 Bus impedance matrix
In cases where, the bus impedance matrix is also required, it cannot be formed by direct
inspection of the given system diagram. However, the bus admittance matrix determined
by the rule of inspection following the steps explained above, can be inverted to obtain the
bus impedance matrix, since the two matrices are interinvertible.
Note: It is to be noted that the rule of inspection can be applied only to those power
systems that do not have any mutually coupled elements.
Examples on Rule of Inspection:
Example 6: Obtain the bus admittance matrix for the admittance network shown aside by
the rule of inspection
Example 7: Obtain YBUS for the impedance network shown aside by the rule of
inspection. Also, determine YBUS for the reduced network after eliminating the eligible
unwanted node. Draw the resulting reduced system diagram.

2.3 SINGULAR TRANSFORMATIONS
The primitive network matrices are the most basic matrices and depend purely on the
impedance or admittance of the individual elements. However, they do not contain any
information about the behaviour of the interconnected network variables. Hence, it is
necessary to transform the primitive matrices into more meaningful matrices which can
relate variables of the interconnected network.

Bus admittance matrix, YBUS and Bus impedance matrix, ZBUS
In the bus frame of reference, the performance of the interconnected network is described
by n independent nodal equations, where n is the total number of buses (n+1nodes are
present, out of which one of them is designated as the reference node).
For example a 5-bus system will have 5 external buses and 1 ground/ ref. bus). The
performance equation relating the bus voltages to bus current injections in bus frame of
reference in admittance form is given by

Where EBUS = vector of bus voltages measured with respect to reference bus
IBUS = Vector of currents injected into the bus
YBUS = bus admittance matrix
The performance equation of the primitive network in admittance form is given by
i + j = [y] v
Pre-multiplying by At (transpose of A), we obtain
At i +At j = At [y] v (18)

However, as per equation (4),
At i =0,
since it indicates a vector whose elements are the algebraic sum of element currents
incident at a bus, which by Kirchhoff’s law is zero. Similarly, At j gives the algebraic sum
of all source currents incident at each bus and this is nothing but the total current injected
at the bus. Hence,
At j = IBUS (19)
Thus from (18) we have, IBUS = At [y] v (20)
However, from (5), we have
v =A EBUS
And hence substituting in (20) we get,
IBUS = At [y] A EBUS (21)

Comparing (21) with (17) we obtain,
YBUS = At [y] A (22)

The bus incidence matrix is rectangular and hence singular. Hence, (22) gives a singular
transformation of the primitive admittance matrix [y]. The bus impedance matrix is given
by ,
ZBUS = YBUS-1 (23)

Note: This transformation can be derived using the concept of power invariance, however,
since the transformations are based purely on KCL and KVL, the transformation will
obviously be power invariant.

Examples on Singular Transformation:
Example 8: For the network of Fig E8, form the primitive matrices [z] & [y] and obtain
the bus admittance matrix by singular transformation. Choose a Tree T(1,2,3). The data is
given in Table E8.
Fig E8 System for Example-8
Table E8: Data for Example-8

Solution:
The bus incidence matrix is formed taking node 1 as the reference bus.
The primitive incidence matrix is given by
The primitive admittance matrix [y] = [z]-1 and given by,
The bus admittance matrix by singular transformation is obtained as

SUMMARY
The formulation of the mathematical model is the first step in obtaining the solution of any
electrical network. The independent variables can be either currents or voltages.
Correspondingly, the elements of the coefficient matrix will be impedances or
admittances.
Network equations can be formulated for solution of the network using graph theory,
independent of the nature of elements. In the graph of a network, the tree-branches and
links are distinctly identified. The complete information about the interconnection of the
network, with the directions of the currents is contained in the bus incidence matrix.
The information on the nature of the elements which form the interconnected network is
contained in the primitive impedance matrix. A primitive element can be represented in
impedance form or admittance form. In the bus frame of reference, the performance of the
interconnected system is described by (n-1) nodal equations, where n is the number of
nodes. The bus admittance matrix and the bus impedance matrix relate the bus voltages
and currents. These matrices can be obtained from the primitive impedance and
admittance matrices.
FORMATION OF BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX

2.4 NODE ELIMINATION BY MATRIX ALGEBRA
Nodes can be eliminated by the matrix manipulation of the standard node equations.
However, only those nodes at which current does not enter or leave the network can be
considered for such elimination. Such nodes can be eliminated either in one group or by
taking the eligible nodes one after the other for elimination, as discussed next.
CASE-A: Simultaneous Elimination of Nodes:
Consider the performance equation of the given network in bus frame of reference in
admittance form for a n-bus system, given by:
Where IBUS and EBUS are n-vectors of injected bus current and bus voltages and YBUS
is the square, symmetric, coefficient bus admittance matrix of order n. Now, of the n buses
present in the system, let p buses be considered for node elimination so that the reduced
system after elimination of p nodes would be retained with m (= n-p) nodes only. Hence
the corresponding performance equation would be similar to (1) except that the coefficient
matrix would be of order m now, i.e.,
IBUS = YBUSnew EBUS (2)
Where YBUSnew is the bus admittance matrix of the reduced network and the vectors

IBUS and EBUS are of order m. It is assumed in (1) that IBUS and EBUS are obtained
with their elements arranged such that the elements associated with p nodes to be
eliminated are in the lower portion of the vectors. Then the elements of YBUS also get
located accordingly so that (1) after matrix partitioning yields,
Where the self and mutual values of YA and YD are those identified only with the nodes
to be retained and removed respectively and YC=YBt is composed of only the
corresponding mutual admittance values, that are common to the nodes m and p.
Now, for the p nodes to be eliminated, it is necessary that, each element of the vector
IBUS-p should be zero. Thus we have from (3):
IBUS-m = YA EBUS-m + YB EBUS-p

IBUS-p = YC EBUS-m + YD EBUS-p = 0
(4)
Solving,
EBUS-p = - YD-1YC EBUS-m
(5)
Thus, by simplification, we obtain an expression similar to (2) as,
IBUS-m = {YA - YBYD-1YC} EBUS-m
(6)
Thus by comparing (2) and (6), we get an expression for the new bus admittance matrix in
terms of the sub-matrices of the original bus admittance matrix as:
YBUSnew = {YA – YBYD -1YC}
(7)
This expression enables us to construct the given network with only the necessary nodes
retained and all the unwanted nodes/buses eliminated. However, it can be observed from
(7) that the expression involves finding the inverse of the sub-matrix YD (of order p). This
would be computationally very tedious if p, the nodes to be eliminated is very large,
especially for real practical systems. In such cases, it is more advantageous to eliminate
the unwanted nodes from the given network by considering one node only at a time for
elimination, as discussed next.
CASE-B: Separate Elimination of Nodes:

Here again, the system buses are to be renumbered, if necessary, such that the node to be
removed always happens to be the last numbered one. The sub-matrix YD then would be a
single element matrix and hence it inverse would be just equal to its own reciprocal value.
Thus the generalized algorithmic equation for finding the elements of the new bus
admittance matrix can be obtained from (6) as,
Yij new = Yij old – Yin Ynj / Ynn " i,j = 1,2,…… n. (8)

Each element of the original matrix must therefore be modified as per (7). Further, this
procedure of eliminating the last numbered node from the given system of n nodes is to be
iteratively repeated p times, so as to eliminate all the unnecessary p nodes from the
original system.
Examples on Node elimination:
Example-1: Obtain YBUS for the impedance network shown below by the rule of
The admittance equivalent network is as follows:
The bus admittance matrix is obtained by RoI as:
The reduced matrix after elimination of node 3 from the given system is determined as per the
equation:

Alternatively,
Thus the reduced network can be obtained again by the rule of inspection as shown below.
Example-2: Obtain YBUS for the admittance network shown below by the rule of

Thus the reduced system of two nodes can be drawn by the rule of inspection as under:


LOAD FLOW STUDIES
REVIEW OF NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS
The numerical analysis involving the solution of algebraic simultaneous equations forms
the basis for solution of the performance equations in computer aided electrical power
system analyses, such as during linear graph analysis, load flow analysis (nonlinear
equations), transient stability studies (differential equations), etc. Hence, it is necessary to
review the general forms of the various solution methods with respect to all forms of
equations, as under:
1. Solution Linear equations:

* Direct methods:
- Cramer’s (Determinant) Method,
- Gauss Elimination Method (only for smaller systems),
- LU Factorization (more preferred method), etc.
* Iterative methods:
- Gauss Method
- Gauss-Siedel Method (for diagonally dominant systems)
3. Solution of Nonlinear equations:

Iterative methods only:
- Gauss-Siedel Method (for smaller systems)
- Newton-Raphson Method (if corrections for variables are small)
4. Solution of differential equations:

Iterative methods only:
- Euler and Modified Euler method,
- RK IV-order method,
- Milne’s predictor-corrector method, etc.
It is to be observed that the nonlinear and differential equations can be solved only by the
iterative methods. The iterative methods are characterized by the various performance
features as under:
_ Selection of initial solution/ estimates
_ Determination of fresh/ new estimates during each iteration
_ Selection of number of iterations as per tolerance limit
_ Time per iteration and total time of solution as per the solution method selected
_ Convergence and divergence criteria of the iterative solution
_ Choice of the Acceleration factor of convergence, etc.

A comparison of the above solution methods is as under:

In general, the direct methods yield exact or accurate solutions. However, they are suited
for only the smaller systems, since otherwise, in large systems, the possible round-off
errors make the solution process inaccurate. The iterative methods are more useful when
the diagonal elements of the coefficient matrix are large in comparison with the off
diagonal elements. The round-off errors in these methods are corrected at the successive
steps of the iterative process.The Newton-Raphson method is very much useful for
solution of non –linear equations, if all the values of the corrections for the unknowns are
very small in magnitude and the initial values of unknowns are selected to be reasonably
closer to the exact solution.
LOAD FLOW STUDIES
Introduction: Load flow studies are important in planning and designing future expansion
of power systems. The study gives steady state solutions of the voltages at all the buses,
for a particular load condition. Different steady state solutions can be obtained, for
different operating conditions, to help in planning, design and operation of the power
system. Generally, load flow studies are limited to the transmission system, which
involves bulk power transmission. The load at the buses is assumed to be known. Load
flow studies throw light on some of the important aspects of the system operation, such as:
violation of voltage magnitudes at the buses, overloading of lines, overloading of
generators, stability margin reduction, indicated by power angle differences between buses
linked by a line, effect of contingencies like line voltages, emergency shutdown of
generators, etc. Load flow studies are required for deciding the economic operation of the
power system. They are also required in transient stability studies. Hence, load flow
studies play a vital role in power system studies. Thus the load flow problem consists of
finding the power flows (real and reactive) and voltages of a network for given bus
conditions. At each bus, there are four quantities of interest to be known for further
analysis: the real and reactive power, the voltage magnitude and its phase angle. Because
of the nonlinearity of the algebraic equations, describing the given power system, their
solutions are obviously, based on the iterative methods only. The constraints placed on the
load flow solutions could be:
_ The Kirchhoff’s relations holding good,
_ Capability limits of reactive power sources,
_ Tap-setting range of tap-changing transformers,
_ Specified power interchange between interconnected systems,
_ Selection of initial values, acceleration factor, convergence limit, etc.
Classification of buses for LFA: Different types of buses are present based on
the specified and unspecified variables at a given bus as presented in the table below:

Table 1. Classification of buses for LFA
Importance of swing bus: The slack or swing bus is usually a PV-bus with the largest
capacity generator of the given system connected to it. The generator at the swing bus
supplies the power difference between the “specified power into the system at the other
buses” and the “total system output plus losses”. Thus swing bus is needed to supply the
additional real and reactive power to meet the losses. Both the magnitude and phase angle
of voltage are specified at the swing bus, or otherwise, they are assumed to be equal to 1.0
p.u. and 00 , as per flat-start procedure of iterative
solutions. The real and reactive powers at the swing bus are found by the computer routine
as part of the load flow solution process. It is to be noted that the source at the swing bus is
a perfect one, called the swing machine, or slack machine. It is voltage regulated, i.e., the
magnitude of voltage fixed. The phase angle is the system reference phase and hence is
fixed. The generator at the swing bus has a torque angle and excitation which vary or
swing as the demand changes. This variation is such as to produce fixed voltage.
Importance of YBUS based LFA:

The majority of load flow programs employ methods using the bus admittance matrix, as
this method is found to be more economical. The bus admittance matrix plays a very
important role in load flow analysis. It is a complex, square and symmetric matrix and
hence only n(n+1)/2 elements of YBUS need to be stored for a n-bus system. Further, in
the YBUS matrix, Yij = 0, if an incident element is not present in the system connecting
the buses ‘i’ and ‘j’. since in a large power system, each bus is connected only to a fewer
buses through an incident element, (about 6-8), the coefficient matrix, YBUS of such
systems would be highly sparse, i.e., it will have many zero valued elements in it. This is
defined by the sparsity of the matrix, as under:
The percentage sparsity of YBUS, in practice, could be as high as 80-90%, especially

for very large, practical power systems. This sparsity feature of YBUS is extensively used
in reducing the load flow calculations and in minimizing the memory required to store the

coefficient matrices. This is due to the fact that only the non-zero elements YBUS can be
stored during the computer based implementation of the schemes, by adopting the suitable
optimal storage schemes. While YBUS is thus highly sparse, it’s inverse, ZBUS, the bus
impedance matrix is not so. It is a FULL matrix, unless the optimal bus ordering schemes
are followed before proceeding for load flow analysis.
THE LOAD FLOW PROBLEM
Here, the analysis is restricted to a balanced three-phase power system, so that the analysis
can be carried out on a single phase basis. The per unit quantities are used for all
quantities. The first step in the analysis is the formulation of suitable equations for the
power flows in the system. The power system is a large interconnected system, where
various buses are connected by transmission lines. At any bus, complex power is injected
into the bus by the generators and complex power is drawn by the loads. Of course at any
bus, either one of them may not be present. The power is transported from one bus to other
via the transmission lines. At any bus i, the complex power Si (injected), shown in figure
1, is defined as
where Si = net complex power injected into bus i, SGi = complex power injected by the
generator at bus i, and SDi = complex power drawn by the load at bus i. According to
conservation of complex power, at any bus i, the complex power injected into the bus must
be equal to the sum of complex power flows out of the bus via the transmission lines.
Hence,
Si = _Sij " i = 1, 2, ………..n

(3)
where Sij is the sum over all lines connected to the bus and n is the number of buses in the
system (excluding the ground). The bus current injected at the bus-i is defined as
Ii = IGi – IDi " i = 1, 2, ………..n (4)

where IGi is the current injected by the generator at the bus and IDi is the current drawn
by the load (demand) at that bus. In the bus frame of reference
IBUS = YBUS VBUS

(5)

Equations (9)-(10) and (13)-(14) are the ‘power flow equations’ or the ‘load flow
equations’ in two alternative forms, corresponding to the n-bus system, where each bus-i is
characterized by four variables, Pi, Qi, |Vi|, and di. Thus a total of 4n variables are

involved in these equations. The load flow equations can be solved for any 2n unknowns,
if the other 2n variables are specified. This establishes the need for classification of buses
of the system for load flow analysis into: PV bus, PQ bus, etc.
DATA FOR LOAD FLOW
Irrespective of the method used for the solution, the data required is common for any load
flow. All data is normally in pu. The bus admittance matrix is formulated from these data.
The various data required are as under:
System data: It includes: number of buses-n, number of PV buses, number of loads,

number of transmission lines, number of transformers, number of shunt elements, the slack
bus number, voltage magnitude of slack bus (angle is generally taken as 0o), tolerance
limit, base MVA, and maximum permissible number of iterations.
Generator bus data: For every PV bus i, the data required includes the bus number,
active power generation PGi, the specified voltage magnitude i sp V , , minimum reactive
power limit Qi,min, and maximum reactive power limit Qi,max.
Load data: For all loads the data required includes the the bus number, active power
demand PDi, and the reactive power demand QDi.
Transmission line data: For every transmission line connected between buses i and k the
data includes the starting bus number i, ending bus number k,.resistance of the line,
reactance of the line and the half line charging admittance.
Transformer data:
For every transformer connected between buses i and k the data to be given includes: the
starting bus number i, ending bus number k, resistance of the transformer, reactance of the
transformer, and the off nominal turns-ratio a.
Shunt element data: The data needed for the shunt element includes the bus number
where element is connected, and the shunt admittance (Gsh + j Bsh).
GAUSS – SEIDEL (GS) METHOD

The GS method is an iterative algorithm for solving non linear algebraic equations. An
initial solution vector is assumed, chosen from past experiences, statistical data or from
practical considerations. At every subsequent iteration, the solution is updated till
convergence is reached. The GS method applied to power flow problem is as discussed
below.
Case (a): Systems with PQ buses only:

Initially assume all buses to be PQ type buses, except the slack bus. This means that (n–1)
complex bus voltages have to be determined. For ease of programming, the slack bus is
generally numbered as bus-1. PV buses are numbered in sequence and PQ buses are
ordered next in sequence. This makes programming easier, compared to random ordering
of buses. Consider the expression for the complex power at bus-i, given from (7), as:

Equation (17) is an implicit equation since the unknown variable, appears on both sides of
the equation. Hence, it needs to be solved by an iterative technique. Starting from an initial
estimate of all bus voltages, in the RHS of (17) the most recent values of the bus voltages
is substituted. One iteration of the method involves computation of all the bus voltages. In
Gauss–Seidel method, the value of the updated voltages are used in the computation of
subsequent voltages in the same iteration, thus speeding up convergence. Iterations are
carried out till the magnitudes of all bus voltages do not change by more than the tolerance
value. Thus the algorithm for GS method is as under:
Algorithm for GS method
1. Prepare data for the given system as required.

2. Formulate the bus admittance matrix YBUS. This is generally done by the rule of
inspection.
3. Assume initial voltages for all buses, 2,3,…n. In practical power systems, the magnitude
of the bus voltages is close to 1.0 p.u. Hence, the complex bus voltages at all (n-1) buses
(except slack bus) are taken to be 1.000. This is normally refered as the flat start solution.
4. Update the voltages. In any (k +1)st iteration, from (17) the voltages are given by

Here note that when computation is carried out for bus-i, updated values are already
available for buses 2,3….(i-1) in the current (k+1)st iteration. Hence these values are used.
For buses (i+1)…..n, values from previous, kth iteration are used.
Where,e is the tolerance value. Generally it is customary to use a value of 0.0001 pu.
Compute slack bus power after voltages have converged using (15) [assuming bus 1 is
slack bus].
7. Compute all line flows.

8. The complex power loss in the line is given by Sik + Ski. The total loss in the system is
calculated by summing the loss over all the lines.
Case (b): Systems with PV buses also present:

At PV buses, the magnitude of voltage and not the reactive power is specified. Hence it is
needed to first make an estimate of Qi to be used in (18). From (15) we have

Case (c): Systems with PV buses with reactive power generation limits specified:
In the previous algorithm if the Q limit at the voltage controlled bus is violated during any
iteration, i.e (k +1) i Q computed using (21) is either less than Qi, min or greater than
Qi,max, it means that the voltage cannot be maintained at the specified value due to lack
of reactive power support. This bus is then treated as a PQ bus in the (k+1)st iteration and
the voltage is calculated with the value of Qi set as follows:
If in the subsequent iteration, if Qi falls within the limits, then the bus can be switched
back to PV status.
Acceleration of convergence
It is found that in GS method of load flow, the number of iterations increase with increase
in the size of the system. The number of iterations required can be reduced if the
correction in voltage at each bus is accelerated, by multiplying with a constant α, called
the acceleration factor. In the (k+1)st iteration we can let
where  is a real number. When  =1, the value of (k +1) is the computed value. If 1<
<2 then the value computed is extrapolated. Generally _ is taken between 1.2 to 1.6, for
GS load flow procedure. At PQ buses (pure load buses) if the voltage magnitude violates

the limit, it simply means that the specified reactive power demand cannot be supplied,
with the voltage maintained within acceptable limits.
Examples on GS load flow analysis:

Since the difference in the voltage magnitudes is less than 10-6 pu, the iterations can be
stopped. To compute line flow

The total loss in the line is given by S12 + S21 = j 0.133329 pu Obviously, it is observed
that there is no real power loss, since the line has no resistance.

Example-2:
For the power system shown in fig. below, with the data as given in tables below, obtain
the bus voltages at the end of first iteration, by applying GS method.

Department of EEE Page 65

COMPUTER TECHNIQUES IN POWER SYSTEMS (CTPS)
Power System Analysis-2 (17EE71) SVIT Bangalore
2020-21

Example-3:
Obtain the load flow solution at the end of first iteration of the system with data as given
below. The solution is to be obtained for the following cases
(i) All buses except bus 1 are PQ Buses
(ii) Bus 2 is a PV bus whose voltage magnitude is specified as 1.04 pu

(iii) Bus 2 is PV bus, with voltage magnitude specified as 1.04 and 0.25_Q2_1.0 pu.




Limitations of GS load flow analysis
GS method is very useful for very small systems. It is easily adoptable, it can be
generalized and it is very efficient for systems having less number of buses. However, GS
LFA fails to converge in systems with one or more of the features as under:
• Systems having large number of radial lines
• Systems with short and long lines terminating on the same bus
• Systems having negative values of transfer admittances
• Systems with heavily loaded lines, etc.
GS method successfully converges in the absence of the above problems. However,

convergence also depends on various other set of factors such as: selection of slack bus,
initial solution, acceleration factor, tolerance limit, level of accuracy of results needed,
type and quality of computer/ software used, etc.

MODULE-2:

Here, the matrix [J] is called the Jacobian matrix. The vector of unknown variables is
updated using (30). The process is continued till the difference between two successive
iterations is less than the tolerance value.










FINAL WORD
In this chapter, the load flow problem, also called as the power flow problem, has been
considered in detail. The load flow solution gives the complex voltages at all the buses and
the complex power flows in the lines. Though, algorithms are available using the
impedance form of the equations, the sparsity of the bus admittance matrix and the ease of
building the bus admittance matrix, have made algorithms using the admittance form of
equations more popular. The most popular methods are the Gauss-Seidel method, the
Newton-Raphson method and the Fast Decoupled Load Flow method. These methods
have been discussed in detail with illustrative examples. In smaller systems, the ease of
programming and the memory requirements, make GS method attractive. However, the
computation time increases with increase in the size of the system. Hence, in large systems
NR and FDLF methods are more popular. There is a trade off between various
requirements like speed, storage, reliability, computation time, convergence characteristics
etc. No single method has all the desirable features. However, NR method is most popular
because of its versatility, reliability and accuracy.


Here, the matrix [J] is called the Jacobianmatrix. The vector of unknown variables is
updated using (30). The process is continued till the difference between two successive
iterations is less than the tolerance value.




Fast Decoupled Algorithm Power System Analysis-2 (17EE71) 2020-21


MODULE-3 & 4
ECONOMIC OPEARATION OF POWER SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
One of the earliest applications of on-line centralized control was to provide a central
facility, to operate economically, several generating plants supplying the loads of the
system. Modern integrated systems have different types of generating plants, such as coal
fired thermal plants, hydel plants, nuclear plants, oil and natural gas units etc. The capital
investment, operation and maintenance costs are different for different types of plants. The
operation economics can again be subdivided into two parts.
i) Problem of economic dispatch, which deals with determining the power output of each
plant to meet the specified load, such that the overall fuel cost is minimized.
ii) Problem of optimal power flow, which deals with minimum – loss delivery, where in
the power flow, is optimized to minimize losses in the system. In this chapter we consider
the problem of economic dispatch.
During operation of the plant, a generator may be in one of the following states:
i) Base supply without regulation: the output is a constant.
ii) Base supply with regulation: output power is regulated based on system load.
iii) Automatic non-economic regulation: output level changes around a base setting as area
control error changes.
iv) Automatic economic regulation: output level is adjusted, with the area load and area
control error, while tracking an economic setting.
Regardless of the units operating state, it has a contribution to the economic operation,
even though its output is changed for different reasons. The factors influencing the cost of
generation are the generator efficiency, fuel cost and transmission losses. The most
efficient generator may not give minimum cost, since it may be located in a place where
fuel cost is high. Further, if the plant is located far from the load centers, transmission
losses may be high and running the plant may become uneconomical. The economic
dispatch problem basically determines the generation of different plants to minimize total
operating cost.
Modern generating plants like nuclear plants, geo-thermal plants etc, may require capital
investment of millions of rupees. The economic dispatch is however determined in terms
of fuel cost per unit power generated and does not include capital investment,
maintenance, depreciation, start-up and shut down costs etc.

PERFORMANCE CURVES
INPUT-OUTPUT CURVE
This is the fundamental curve for a thermal plant and is a plot of the input in British
thermal units (Btu) per hour versus the power output of the plant in MW as shown in Fig1.
HEAT RATE CURVE

The heat rate is the ratio of fuel input in Btu to energy output in KWh. It is the slope of the
input – output curve at any point. The reciprocal of heat – rate is called fuel –efficiency.
The heat rate curve is a plot of heat rate versus output in MW. A typical plot is shown in
Fig .2
Fig .2 Heat rate curve.

INCREMENTAL FUEL RATE CURVE
The incremental fuel rate is equal to a small change in input divided by the
corresponding change in output.
The unit is again Btu / KWh. A plot of incremental fuel rate versus the output is shown in
Fig 3
Incremental cost curve
The incremental cost is the product of incremental fuel rate and fuel cost (Rs / Btu or $ /
Btu). The curve in shown in Fig. 4. The unit of the incremental fuel cost is Rs / MWh or
$ /MWh.

In general, the fuel cost Fi for a plant, is approximated as a quadratic function of the
generated output PGi.
The incremental fuel cost is given by
The incremental fuel cost is a measure of how costly it will be produce an increment of
power. The incremental production cost, is made up of incremental fuel cost plus the
incremental cost of labour, water, maintenance etc. which can be taken to be some
percentage of the incremental fuel cost, instead of resorting to a rigorous mathematical
model. The cost curve can be approximated by a linear curve. While there is negligible
operating cost for a hydel plant, there is a limitation on the power output possible. In any
plant, all units normally operate between PGmin, the minimum loading limit, below which
it is technically infeasible to operate a unit and PGmax, which is the maximum output
limit.
ECONOMIC GENERATION SCHEDULING NEGLECTING LOSSES AND

GENERATOR LIMITS
The simplest case of economic dispatch is the case when transmission losses are
neglected. The model does not consider the system configuration or line impedances.
Since losses are neglected, the total generation is equal to the total demand PD. Consider a
system with ng number of generating plants supplying the total demand PD. If Fi is the

cost of plant i in Rs/h, the mathematical formulation of the problem of economic

scheduling can be stated as follows:
This is a constrained optimization problem, which can be solved by Lagrange’s method.
LAGRANGE METHOD FOR SOLUTION OF ECONOMIC SCHEDULE

The problem is restated below:
The second equation is simply the original constraint of the problem. The cost of a plant

Fi depends only on its own output PGi, hence
The above equation is called the co-ordination equation. Simply stated, for economic
generation scheduling to meet a particular load demand, when transmission losses are
neglected and generation limits are not imposed, all plants must operate at equal
incremental production costs, subject to the constraint that the total generation be equal to
the demand. From we have

It can be seen that l is dependent on the demand and the coefficients of the cost function.

Example 1.
The fuel costs of two units are given by

ECONOMIC SCHEDULE INCLUDING LIMITS ON GENERATOR(

NEGLECTING LOSSES)The power output of any generator has a maximum value
dependent on the rating of thegenerator. It also has a minimum limit set by stable boiler
operation. The economicdispatch problem now is to schedule generation to minimize cost,
subject to the equalityconstraint.
The procedure followed is same as before i.e. the plants are operated with equal
incremental fuel costs, till their limits are not violated. As soon as a plant reaches the limit
(maximum or minimum) its output is fixed at that point and is maintained a constant. The
other plants are operated at equal incremental costs.

Example 3
Incremental fuel costs in $ / MWh for two units are given below:
Now at light loads unit 1 has a higher incremental cost and hence will operate at its lower
limit of 20 MW. Initially, additional load is taken up by unit 2, till such time its
incremental fuel cost becomes equal to 2.2$ / MWh at PG2 = 50 MW. Beyond this, the
two units are operated with equal incremental fuel costs. The contribution of each unit to
meet the demand is obtained by assuming different values of l; When l = 3.1 $ / MWh,
unit 2 operates at its upper limit. Further loads are taken up by unit 1. The computations
are show in Table

For a particular value of l, PG1 and PG2 are calculated using (8.16). Fig 8.5 Shows plot of
each unit output versus the total plant output.
For any particular load, the schedule for each unit for economic dispatch can be obtained.
Example 4.
Department of EEE Page 95

In example 3, what is the saving in fuel cost for the economic schedule compared to the
case where the load is shared equally. The load is 180 MW.
Solution:
From Table it is seen that for a load of 180 MW, the economic schedule is PG1 = 80 MW
and PG2 = 100 MW. When load is shared equally PG1 = PG2 = 90 MW. Hence, the
generation of unit 1 increases from 80 MW to 90 MW and that of unit 2 decreases from
100 MW to 90 MW, when the load is shared equally. There is an increase in cost of unit 1
since PG1 increases and decrease in cost of unit 2 since PG2 decreases.
ECONOMIC DISPATCH INCLUDING TRANSMISSION LOSSES
When transmission distances are large, the transmission losses are a significant part of the
generation and have to be considered in the generation schedule for economic operation.
The mathematical formulation is now stated as


The minimum operation cost is obtained when the product of the incremental fuel cost and
the penalty factor of all units is the same, when losses are considered. A rigorous general
expression for the loss PL is given by
where Bmn, Bno , Boo called loss – coefficients , depend on the load composition. The
assumption here is that the load varies linearly between maximum and minimum values. A
simpler expression is
The expression assumes that all load currents vary together as a constant complex fraction
of the total load current. Experiences with large systems has shown that the loss of
accuracy is not significant if this approximation is used. An average set of loss coefficients
may be used over the complete daily cycle in the coordination of incremental production
costs and incremental transmission losses. In general, Bmn = Bnm and can be expanded
for a two plant system as

Example 5
A generator is supplying a load. An incremental change in load of 4 MW requires
generation to be increased by 6 MW. The incremental cost at the plant bus is Rs 30 /MWh.
What is the incremental cost at the receiving end?
Solution:




DERIVATION OF TRANSMISSION LOSS FORMULA
An accurate method of obtaining general loss coefficients has been presented by Kron.
The method is elaborate and a simpler approach is possible by making the following
assumptions:
(i) All load currents have same phase angle with respect to a common reference
(ii) The ratio X / R is the same for all the network branches.
Consider the simple case of two generating plants connected to an arbitrary number of
loads through a transmission network as shown in Fig a







Economic Operation of Power System
Introduction
Economic operation is very important for a power system to return a profit on the
capital invested. Two things put pressure on power companies to achieve maximum
possible efficiency.
(a) Rates fixed by regulatory bodies and
(b) the importance of conservation of fuel place
Maximum efficiency minimizes the cost of electrical energy consumed by the

consumers. Also it reduces the rising prices for fuel, labor, supplies and maintenance.
Operational economics involving power generation and delivery of the power. Delivery
can be subdivided into two parts.
(i) One dealing with minimum cost of power production called Economic dispatch.
(ii) Other dealing with minimum loss of the generated power delivery to the loads.
For any specified load condition, economic dispatch
(i) determines the power output of each plant.
(ii)Minimizes the overall cost of fuel needed to serve the system load.
The economic dispatch problem can be solved by means of the optimal power flow
(OPF) program.
We first study the most economic distribution of power within the plant. The method
that we develop applies to economic scheduling of plant output for a given loading of
the system without considering of transmission losses.
Next we express transmission loss as a function of the outputs of the various plants.
Then we determine how the output of each of the plants of a system is scheduled to
achieve the minimum cost of power delivered to the load.
Because the total load of the power system varies throughout the day, coordinated
control of the power plant outputs is necessary to ensure generation to load balance
so that the system frequency will remain as close as possible to the nominal operating
value, usually 50 or 60 Hz. Also because of the daily load variation, the utility has to
decide on the basis of economics which generator to start up, which generators to
shut down, and in what order. The computational procedure for making such
decisions, called unit commitment.

Distribution of load between units within a plant
Power plant consisting of several generating units which are constructed by investing
huge amount of money. Fuel cost, staff salary, interest and depreciation charges and
maintenance cost are some of the components of operating cost.
Fuel cost is the major portion of operating cost and it can be controlled. Therefore we
shall consider the fuel cost alone for further considerations. To get different output
power, we need to vary the fuel input.
Fuel input can be measured in tones/hr or millions of BTU(British Thermal Unit)/hr.

Knowing the cost of the fuel, in terms of Rs/tone or Rs/Millions of BTU, input to the
generating unit can be expressed as Rs/hr.
Let Ci Rs/h be the input cost to generate a power of Pi MW in unit i. Fig.1 shows a
typical input output curve of a generating unit. For each generating unit there shall be
a minimum and maximum power generated as Pi,min and Pi,max.
If the input-output curve of Unit ‘I’ is quadratic , we can write
Where, Ci = Input cost, Pi – Output power in MW, α, β and ϒ are cost coefficient.
A power plant may have several generating units. If the input-output characteristic of
different generator is identical, then the generating units can be equally loaded. But
generating units will generally have different input-output characteristic. This means
that for a particular input cost, the generator power Pi will be different for different
generating units in a plant.
Incremental cost curve
As we shall see the criterion for distribution of the load between any two units is based
on whether increasing the generation of one unit, and decreasing the generation of
other unit by the same amount results in an increase or decrease in total cost. This

can be obtained if we can calculate the change in input cost ΔCi for a small change in
power ΔPi.
Thus while deciding the optimal scheduling, we are concerned with dCi/dPi,
Incremental cost (IC) which is determined by the slopes of the input-output curves.
Thus the incremental cost curve is the plot of dCi/dPi versus Pi. The dimension of
dCi/dPi is Rs/MWh.
Plot of Ic versus power o/p is shown in fig.2.
The fig.2 shows that the incremental cost is quite linear with respect to power output
over an appreciable range. In analytical work, the curve is usually approximated by
one or two straight lines. The dashed line in the fig-2 is a good representation of the
curve.
Economical division of plant load between generating units in a plant
Let total load in a plant is supplied by two units and that the division of load between
these units is such that the incremental cost of one unit is higher than that of the
other unit.
Now suppose some of the load is transferred from the unit with higher incremental
cost to the unit with lower incremental cost. Reducing the load on the unit with higher
incremental cost will result in greater reduction of cost than the increase in cost for
adding the same amount of load to the unit with lower incremental cost.

The transfer of load from one to other can be continued with a reduction of total cost
until the incremental costs of the two units are equal. The same reason can be
extended to a plant with more than two generating units also. In this case, if any two
units have different incremental costs, then in order to decrease the total cost of
generation, decrease the output power in units having higher incremental cost and
increase the output power in units having lower incremental cost.
When this process is continued, a stage will reach where incremental costs of all the
units will be equal. Now the total cost of the generation will be minimum. Thus the
economical division of load between units within a plant is that all units must operate
at the same incremental cost.
Economy loading neglecting transmission losses
Consider a system having two generating units having costs C 1 and C2.
C1 and C2 are the fuel costs of the two units in Rs/hr.
Total output PT is equal to active power demand and is constant. It is desired to find P1
and P2 so that CT is minimum.
From equation (5)
For minimum total cost CT,
Combining equation (6), (7) and (8) we have
So it is concluded that the loads should be so allocated that the two units operate at
equal incremental costs.
The above concept can be extended to a system with any number of units.

Thus optimum economy is achieved if every unit operates at the same cost.




Distribution of load between different plants
Since plants are generally long distance a parts in an integrated system, it becomes
essential to consider transmission losses in deciding the load allocation to different
plants. This leads to the dispatch of power in an economic way so as to make the
overall cost to be the minimum.
Let there be ‘m’ no of plants in a system integrated by transmission line.
PG1, PG2..PGm - Generation output of the plants in MW
PD -Total load in MW
PL - Losses in transmission lines.
Where, Cn – Fuel cost of nth plant in Rs/hr
PGn – output of nth plant in MW.

Our objective is to obtain a minimum cost for a fixed system load PD subject to the
power balance constraint of equation (3). We now present the procedure for solving
such minimization problems called the method of Lagrange multipliers.
The new cost function C is formed by combining the total fuel cost and the equality
constraint of equation(3) in the following manner.
The cost function C is often called the lagrangian, and we shall see that the parameter
λ which we now call Lagrange multiplier is the effective incremental fule cost of the
system when transmission line losses are taken into account.
C and λ are expressed in Rs/hr
For minimum cost we require the derivative of C with respect to each PGm to equal
zero,
Since PD is fixed and the fuel cost of any one unit varies only if the power output of
that unit is varied. Therefore equation (5) becomes
Because Cm depends on only PGn, the partial derivative of Cm can be replaced by the
full derivative and equation (6) then gives
where Ln is called the penalty factor for plant n and is given by
Equation (7) is called the exact coordinate equation.

From equation (7)
So minimum fuel cost is obtained when the incremental fuel cost od each plant
multiplied by its penalty factor is the same for all the plants.
Representation of transmission losses
The transmission losses depend on line currents and line resistances. It is possible to
represent these losses as a function of plant loadings.
Fig. showa a simple system having two sources. Derive an expression for the
transmission loss and express it as a function of plant loadings. Assume the currents
I1 I2 are in phase.
Let ra, rb, rc be the resistances of line a,b and c respectively. The transmission loss is
Since I1 and I2 are in same phase
Let P1 and P2 be the power outputs and V1 and V2 be the bus voltage and cos Φ1 and
cos Φ2 be the power factors of sources 1 and 2 respectively. Then
Substituting these values in transmission line equation we get
Where,

The transmission loss equation:
To include the effect of transmission losses in deciding the load allocation, it is

necessary to represent the loss as a function of plant loading. The general form of loss
equation is
Where, PL – transmission losses in pu
P-plant loading in pu
B-Loss coefficient
For a two generating source system
For a three generating source system
The matrix representation of above loss equation is
Where for a total of k sources
Where, PT is the transposition of P. The B coefficients depend on the system network

parameters, configuration, plant power factor and voltages etc.
Example:1
The incremental cost characteristic of the two units in a plant are
IC1 = 0.1 P1+8.0 Rs/MWh

IC2 = 0.15 P2 + 3.0 Rs/MWh
When the total load is 100 MW, what is the optimum sharing of load?
Solution:
But P1 + P2 = 100 MW
Optimum sharing of load is
Example:2
A power system consisting of two generators of capacity 210MW each supplies a total load of
310 MW at a certain time. The respective incremental fuel cost of Generator-1 and Generator-
2 are:
Where, powers PG in MW and costs C in Rs/hr. Determine (i) the most economical division of
load between the generators and (ii) the saving in Rs/day thereby obtained compared to equal
load sharing between the machines.
Solution:
Case-1: the most economical division of load between the generators

Case-2: the saving in Rs/day thereby obtained compared to equal load sharing between the
machines.
Th
The negative sign indicates a decrease in cost as output is decreasing.
Therefore the net increase in cost = 858.619-788.972=69.647 per hr.
Unit Commitment
The total load in the power system varies throughout the day and reaches different
peak value from one day to another. Different combination of generators are to be
connected in the system to meet the varying load. When the load increases, the utility
has to decide in advance the sequence in which the generator units are to be brought
in. Similarly when the load decreases, the operating engineer need to know in advance
the sequence in which the generating units are to be shut down. The problem of
finding the order in which the units are to be shut down over a period of time (say one
day), so the total operating cost involved on that day is minimum, is known as Unit
Commitment(UC). Thus UC problem is economic dispatch over a day. The period
considered may be a week, a month or a year.
Constraints on UC problem
a. Spinning reserve: There may be sudden increase in load, more than

what was predicted. Further there may be a situation that one generating
unit may have to be shut down because of fault in generator or any of its
auxiliaries.
Some system capacity has to be kept as spinning reserve
i) to meet an unexpected increase in demand and

ii) to ensure power supply in the event of any generating unit suffering a forced
outage.
b. Minimum up time: When a thermal unit is brought in, it cannot be turned off
immediately. Once it is committed, it has to be in the system for a specified
minimum up time.
c. Minimum down time: When a thermal unit is decommitted, it cannot be
turned on immediately. It has to remain decommitted for a specified minimum
down time.
d. Crew constraint: A plant always has two or more generating units. It may not
be possible to turn on more than one generating unit at the same time due to
non-availability of operating personnel.
e. Transition cost: Whenever the status of one unit is changed some transition
cost is involved and this has to be taken into account.
f. Hydro constraints: Most of the systems have hydroelectric units also. The
operation of hydro units, depend on the availability of water. Moreover, hydro-
projects are multipurpose projects. Irrigation requirements also determine the
operation of hydro plants.
g. Nuclear constraint: If a nuclear plant is part of the system, another constraint
is added. A nuclear plant has to be operated as a base load plant only.
h. Must run unit: Sometime it is a must to run one or two units from the
consideration of voltage support and system stability.
i. Fuel supply constraint: Some plants cannot be operated due to deficient fuel
supply.
j. Transmission line limitation: Reserve must be spread around the power
system to avoid transmission system limitation, often called bottling of reserves.
Solving the unit commitment problem
The objective of unit commitment is not economical to run all the units available all
the time. To determine the units of plants that should operate for a particular load is
the problem of unit commitment.
This problem is important for thermal power plant because the operating cost and
start up time are high and hence their on-off status is important.
A simple approach to the problem is to impose priority ordering, wherein the most
efficient unit is loaded first, and then followed by the less efficient units in order as the
load increases.
Finding the most economical combination of units that can supply this load demand is
to try all possible combination of units that can supply this load; to divide the load
optimally among the units of each combination by use of the co-ordination equation,
so as to find most economical operating cost of combination then to determine the
combination which has the least operating cost among all these. These combinations
can be solved by dynamic programming method.
Solution of unit commitment problem by Forward Dynamic Programming (FDP)

In FDP, we start with the first duration obtain the unit commitment schedule for this
duration, go to second duration till we reach the last duration.
In FDP, the initial conditions are easily specified, calculation can be carried out for
any desired length of time and the previous history of each unit can be calculated at
every stage.
The operating cost for any stage needs method of economic dispatch. This is due to
the fact that for any given combination of units, the operating cost is minimum if all
the units in this combination are operating at equal incremental cost.
Two other variables enter the strategy for UC by Forward dynamic programming. This
is because a no of possible combinations exist for every state. Let this be denoted by
K. Another variable is the no. of paths or strategies to save at every step. Let this
variable be denoted as L.
Procedure
• The stage in load cycle is specified as i. We start with i=1 i.e. first stage.
• The operating cost for this stage is computed. This has to be repeated for all
possible combination K.
• We now go to (i+1) th stage.
• The no. of feasible paths in duration (i-1) is found and stored.
• The minimum total cost is calculated using the formula
• Tcost (i,n)=min[least total cost to reach state(i,n)+ operating cost for

state(i,n)+transition cost from state (i-1,m) to state(i,n)]
• This has to be repeated for all states in the ith interval.
• The lowest cost paths (number L) are saved in computer memory.
• Check whether the program has reached the last stage in load cycle. If yes
optimal schedule is printed. Otherwise i is uploaded to (i+1) and program is
repeated.
Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
Almost all generating companies have tie line interconnections to neighboring utilities.
Tie lines allow the sharing of generation resources in emergencies and economies of
power production under normal conditions of operation.
For purpose of control the entire interconnected system is subdivided into control
areas which usually confirm to the boundaries of one or more companies. The net

interchange of power over the tie lines of an area is the algebraic difference between
area generation and area load(plus losses).
Frequency changes occur because system loads varies randomly throughout the day
so that an exact forecast of real power demand cannot be assured. The imbalance
between real power generation and load demand (plus losses) throughout the daily
load cycle causes kinetic energy of rotation to be either added to or taken from the
online generating units, and frequency throughout the interconnected system varies
as a result. Each control area has a central facility called Energy control centre, which
monitors the system frequency and the actual power flows on its tie lines to
neighboring areas. The deviation between desired and actual system frequency is then
combined with the deviation from the scheduled net interchange to form a composite
measure called the area control error (ACE).
To remove area control error, the energy control center sends command signals to the
generating units at the power plants within its area to control the generator outputs so
as to restore the net interchange power to scheduled values and assist in restoring the
system frequency to its desired value. The monitoring, telemetering, processing and
control functions are coordinated within the individual area by the computer based
automatic generation control(AGC) system at the energy control centre. The governors
on units of the interconnected system tend to maintain load-generation balance rather
than a specific speed and the supplementary control of the AGC system within the
individual control area functions so as to:
 Cause the area to absorb its own load changes,
 Provide the prearranged net interchange with neighbors,
 Ensure the desired economic dispatch output of each area plant,
 Allow the area to do its share to maintain the desired system frequency.
The ACE is continuously recorded within the energy control centre to show how well
the individual area is accomplishing these tasks.
Short Questions
1. What is Automatic load dispatching?’ 2017
Economic load dispatching is the distribution of the load among the generating units
in such a manner so as to minimize the cost of supplying the minute to-minute
requirements of the system.
In a large interconnected system it is humanly impossible to calculate and adjust such
generations and hence the help of digital computer system along with analogue

devices is used. The whole process is carried out automatically; hence this process is
known as automatic load dispatching.
2. Define load curve? 2017
The curve drawn between the variations of load on the power station with reference to
time is known as load curve. There are three types of load curve
• Daily load curve,
• Monthly load curve,
• Yearly load curve.
3. What is Load factor? 2017
The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is known as
load factor.
4. What is AGC? 2017

In an electric power system, automatic generation control (AGC) is a system for
adjusting the power output of multiple generators at different power plants, in
response to changes in the load. Since a power grid requires that generation and load
closely balance moment by moment, frequent adjustments to the output of generators
are necessary. The balance can be judged by measuring the system frequency; if it is
increasing, more power is being generated than used, which causes all the machines
in the system to accelerate. If the system frequency is decreasing, more load is on the
system than the instantaneous generation can provide, which causes all generators to
slow down.
5. What is incremental cost criterion? 2017
The operating cost C of a generating unit is a function of its power output. dC/dP is
the incremental cost. The total load should be so allocated to different generating units
that they operate at equal incremental costs.(Unit: Rs/MWh)
Or
Incremental Cost Criteria of a generating unit is stated as “Allocate Generation so that
total Demand is Satisfied & All Incremental Costs are equal in Economic Dispatch
Problem”
6. Write the equality and inequality constraints considered in economic dispatch
problem’ 2017

7. What are the constraints of economic load dispatch problem?2016

Refer answer of question number 06.
8. What are the spinning reserve constraints in unit commitment problem’ 2017
There may be sudden increase in load, more than what was predicted. Further there
may be a situation that one generating unit may have to be shut down because of fault
in generator or any of its auxiliaries. Some system capacity has to be kept as spinning
reserve
i) to meet an unexpected increase in demand and
ii) to ensure power supply in the event of any generating unit suffering a forced
outage.
OR
Spinning reserve must be maintained so that the loss of one or more units does not
cause unacceptable decline in frequency i.e. there must be sufficient reserve such that
if one unit is lost , other unit can makeup for the loss in a specified time period.
9. What is meant by unit commitment?2016
The problem of finding the order in which the units are to be shut down over a period
of time (say one day), so the total operating cost involved on that day is minimum, is
known as Unit Commitment(UC).
10. What are typical conditions needed to be taken care of while distributing
loads among the plants of a system? 2015

To determine the economic distribution of a load amongst the different units of a

plant,
• The variable operating costs of each unit must be expressed in terms of its
power output.
• The fuel cost is the main cost in a thermal or nuclear unit. Then the fuel cost
must be expressed in terms of the power output.
• Other costs, such as the operation and maintenance costs, can also be
expressed in terms of the power output.
11. What is area control error?
The deviation between desired and actual system frequency is then combined with the
deviation from the scheduled net interchange to form a composite measure called the
area control error (ACE).
12. What is the purpose of economic dispatch?
The purpose of economic dispatch (or) optimal dispatch is to minimize the fuel costs
for the power system.
13. What is meant by unit commitment?
Unit commitment means optimum allocation of generators at each generating station
at various station load levels.
14. Name the methods of finding economic dispatch.
The two methods to find economic dispatch are:
(i) Load scheduling
(ii) Unit commitment
15. What is meant by total generator operating cost?
The total generator operating cost includes the cost of fuel, cost of transmission loss,
labor and maintenance costs.
16. What are the factors affecting the cost of generation? (or) List the various
constraints in the modern power systems.
The cost of generation depends on operating constraints or system constraints. They
are:
 Equality constraint.
 Inequality constraint
 Generator constraints
 Voltage constraints

 Running space capacity constraints.

 Transformers tap settings.
 Transmission line constraints.
17. What are the advantages of using participation factor?
The advantages of using participation factor are:
(a) Computer implementation of economic dispatch is straight forward.
(b) Execution time for economic dispatch is short.
(c) It will always give consistent answers when units reach limits.
(d) It gives linear incremental cost functions or has non-convex cost curves.
18. What is the difference between load frequency controller and economic
dispatch controller?
 The load frequency controller is a fast acting controller and the economic
dispatch controller is a slow acting control.
 LFC adjusts the speed changer setting every minute in accordance with a
command signal generated by the central economic dispatch computer.
19. What is merit order scheduling?
This method ensures that the incremental cost of all the generators is constant over
the full range (or) over successive discrete portions within the range. This method of
scheduling is known as merit order scheduling.
20. What is Lagrangian multiplier?
The necessary condition for the existence of a minimum cost operating condition is
that the incremental cost rates of all the units be equal to some undetermined value(λ)
called Lagrangian multiplier.
21. What are the points to be noted for a economic load dispatch including
transmission losses?
1) The incremental cost of production of a plant is always positive; the incremental
transmission losses can be both positive and negative.
2) The individual generators will operate at different incremental cost of production.
3) The generation with highest positive incremental transmission loss will operate at
lowest incremental cost of production.
22. What are the assumptions for deriving loss coefficients?
1. The ratio X/R for all transmission line is same.
2. The phase angle of all the load currents is the same.

23. How is incremental operating cost related to economic dispatch?

Total system load has to be divided among all units that all the units operate at equal
incremental cost.
24. What are the criteria that should be satisfied for economic loading of
generating station?
Equal incremental cost criteria.
25. What is system incremental cost?
The incremental fuel cost of all the generating units must be the same. The common
value of incremental fuel cost λ is called the system incremental cost.

Mod ule-4
HYDROTHERMAL SCHEDULING
OPTIMAL SCHEDULING OF HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEM
 No state or country is endowed with plenty of water sources or abundant coal or nuclear fuel.
 In states, which have adequate hydro as well as thermal power generation capacities, proper
co-ordination to obtain a most economical operating state is essential.
 Maximum advantage is to use hydro power so that the coal reserves can be conserved and
environmental pollution can be minimized.
 However in many hydro systems, the generation of power is an adjunct to control of flood
water or the regular scheduled release of water for irrigation. Recreations centers may have
developed along the shores of large reservoir so that only small surface water elevation
changes are possible.
 The whole or a part of the base load can be supplied by the run-off river hydro plants, and the
peak orthe remaining load is then met by a proper mix of reservoir type hydro plants and
thermal plants. Determination of this by a proper mix is the determination of the most
economical operating state of a hydro-thermal system. The hydro-thermal coordination is
classified into long term co-ordination and short term coordination.
The previous sections have dealt with the problem of optimal scheduling of a power system with
thermal plants only. Optimal operating policy in this case can be completely determined at any
instant without reference to operation at other times. This, indeed, is the static optimization
problem. Operation of a system having both hydro and thermal plants is, however, far more
complex as hydro plants have negligible operating cost, but are required to operate under
constraints of water available for hydro generation in a given period of time. The problem thus
belongs to the realm of dynamic optimization. The problem of minimizing the operating cost of a
hydrothermal system can be viewed as one of minimizing the fuel cost of thermal plants under
the constraint of water availability (storage and inflow) for hydro generation over a given period
of operation.

Fig. 2.1 Fundamental hydrothermal system
For the sake of simplicity and understanding, the problem formulation and solution technique are
illustrated through a simplified hydrothermal system of Fig. 2.1. This system consists of one
hydro and one thermal plant supplying power to a centralized load and is referred to as a
fundamental system. Optimization will be carried out with real power generation as control
variable, with transmission loss accounted for by the loss formula.
Mathematical Formulation
For a certain period of operation T (one year, one month or one day, depending upon the
requirement), it is assumed that (i) storage of hydro reservoir at the beginning and the end of the
period are specified, and (ii) water inflow to reservoir (after accounting for irrigation use) and
load demand on the system are known as functions of time with complete certainty (deterministic
case). The problem is to determine q(t), the water discharge (rate) so as to minimize the cost of
thermal generation.
𝑇
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶 ′ 𝑃𝐺𝑇 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (3.1)
0
under the following constraints:
(i) Meeting the load demand
PGT(t) + PGH(t) – PL(t) – PD(t) = 0; t ε [0,T] (3.2)

This is called the power balance equation.
(ii) Water availability
𝑇 𝑇
𝑋′ 𝑇 − 𝑋′ 0 − 𝐽(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑞(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 0 (3.3)
0 0
where J(t) is the water inflow (rate), X'(t) water storage, and X’(0) , X’ (T) are specified water
storages at the beginning and at the end of the optimization interval.
(iii) The hydro generation PGH(t) is a function of hydro discharge and water storage (or head), i.e.
PGH(t) = f(X'(t),q(t)) (3.4)
The problem can be handled conveniently by discretization. The optimization interval T is

subdivided into M subintervals each of time length ΔT. Over each subinterval it is assumed that
all the variables remain fixed in value. The problem is now posed as
M M
𝑚𝑖𝑛 ΔT C′ (PGT
m
) = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 m
C(PGT ) (3.5)
m=1 m=1
under the following constraints:
(i) Power balance equation
𝑚 𝑚
𝑃𝐺𝑇 + 𝑃𝐺𝐻 – 𝑃𝐿𝑚 – 𝑃𝐷𝑚 = 0 (3.6)
where
𝑚
𝑃𝐺𝑇 = thermal generation in the mth interval
𝑚
𝑃𝐺𝐻 = hydro generation in the mth interval
𝑃𝐿𝑚 =transmission loss in the mth interval
𝑚 2 𝑚 𝑚 2
= 𝐵𝑇𝑇 (𝑃𝐺𝑇 ) + 2𝐵𝑇𝐻 𝑃𝐺𝐻 + 𝐵𝐻𝐻 (𝑃𝐺𝐻 )
𝑃𝐷𝑚 = load demand in the mth interval
(ii) Water continuity equation

𝑋 ′𝑚 − 𝑋 ′(𝑚 −1) − 𝐽𝑚 ΔT + 𝑞 𝑚 ΔT = 0
where
X’m = water storage at the end of the mth interval
Jm = water inflow (rate) in the mth interval
qm = water discharge (rate) in the mth interval
The above equation can be written as
𝑋 𝑚 − 𝑋 (𝑚 −1) − 𝐽𝑚 + 𝑞 𝑚 = 0; 𝑚 = 1,2, … . , 𝑀 (3.7)
where Xm = X’m/ΔT = storage in discharge units.
In Eqs. (3.7), Xo and XM are the specified storages at the beginning and end of the optimization
interval.
(iii) Hydro generation in any subinterval can be expressed as
𝑚
𝑃𝐺𝐻 = ℎ𝑜 1 + 0.5𝑒(𝑋 𝑚 + 𝑋 𝑚 −1 ) 𝑞𝑚 − 𝜌 (3.8)
where
ho = 9.81 × 10-3 h’o
ho = basic water head (head corresponding to dead storage)
e = water head correction factor to account for head variation with storage
ρ = non-effective discharge (water discharge needed to run hydro generator at no load).
In the above problem formulation, it is convenient to choose water discharges in all subintervals
except one as independent variables, while hydro generations, thermal generations and water
storages in all subintervals are treated as dependent variables. The fact, that water discharge in
one of the subintervals is a dependent variable, is shown below:
Adding Eq. (3.7) for m = l, 2, ...,M leads to the following equation, known as water availability
equation

𝑋𝑀 − 𝑋0 − 𝐽𝑚 + 𝑞𝑚 = 0 (3.9)
𝑚 𝑚
Because of this equation, only (M - l) qs can be specified independently and the remaining one
can then be determined from this equation and is, therefore, a dependent variable. For
convenience, q1 is chosen as a dependent variable, for which we can write
𝑀
1 0 𝑀 𝑚
𝑞 = 𝑋 −𝑋 + 𝐽 − 𝑞𝑚 (3.10)
𝑚 𝑚 =2
Solution Technique
The problem is solved here using non-linear programming technique in conjunction with the first
order gradient method. The Lagrangian is formulated by augmenting the cost function of Eq.
(3.5) with equality constraints of Eqs. (3.6)-(3.8) through Lagrange multipliers (dual variables)
𝜆1𝑚 , 𝜆𝑚 𝑚
2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜆3 . Thus,
𝑚
ℒ= 𝑚 𝐶 𝑃𝐺𝑇 − 𝜆1𝑚 𝑃𝐺𝑇
𝑚 𝑚
+ 𝑃𝐺𝐻 – 𝑃𝐿𝑚 – 𝑃𝐷𝑚 + 𝜆𝑚 𝑚
2 𝑋 −𝑋
𝑚 −1
− 𝐽𝑚 + 𝑞 𝑚 +
𝜆𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
3 𝑃𝐺𝐻 − ℎ𝑜 1 + 0.5𝑒(𝑋 + 𝑋
𝑚 −1
) 𝑞𝑚 − 𝜌 (3.11)
The dual variables are obtained by equating to zero the partial derivatives of the Lagrangian with
respect to the dependent variables yielding the following equations
𝑚
𝜕ℒ 𝑑𝐶(𝑃𝐺𝑇 ) 𝑚
𝜕𝑃𝐿𝑚
𝑚 = 𝑚 − 𝜆1 1 − 𝑚 =0 (3.12)
𝜕𝑃𝐺𝑇 𝑑𝑃𝐺𝑇 𝜕𝑃𝐺𝑇
𝜕ℒ 𝑚 𝑚
𝜕𝑃𝐿𝑚
= 𝜆3 − 𝜆1 1 − 𝑚 = 0 (3.13)
𝜕𝑃𝐺𝑚 𝜕𝑃𝐺𝐻
𝜕ℒ
= 𝜆𝑚 𝑚+1
2 − 𝜆2 − 𝜆𝑚 𝑚
3 0.5ℎ𝑜 𝑒 𝑞 − 𝜌 − 𝜆𝑚
3
+1
0.5ℎ𝑜 𝑒 𝑞 𝑚+1 − 𝜌 = 0 (3.14)
𝜕𝑋 𝑚 𝑚 ≠𝑀
≠0
and using Eq. (3.7) in Eq. (3.11), we get

𝜕ℒ
= 𝜆12 − 𝜆13 ℎ𝑜 1 + 0.5 𝑒 2𝑋 0 + 𝐽1 − 2𝑞1 + 𝜌 =0 (3.15)
𝜕𝑞1
The dual variables for any subinterval may be obtained as follows:
(i) Obtain 𝜆1𝑚 from Eq. (3.12).
(ii) Obtain 𝜆𝑚
3 from Eq. (3.13).
(iii) Obtain 𝜆12 from Eq. (3.15) and other values of 𝜆𝑚

2 (𝑚 ≠ 1) from Eq. (3.14).
The gradient vector is given by the partial derivatives of the Lagrangian with respect to the
independent variables. Thus
𝜕ℒ
= 𝜆𝑚 𝑚
2 − 𝜆3 ℎ𝑜 1 + 0.5 𝑒 2𝑋
𝑚 −1
+ 𝐽𝑚 − 2𝑞 𝑚 + 𝜌 (3.16)
𝜕𝑞 𝑚 𝑚 ≠1
For optimality the gradient vector should be zero if there are no inequality constraints on the
control variables.

Power System Security

Power system security may be looked upon as the probability of the system’s operating point
remaining with in accept able ranges, given the probabilities of changes in the system
(contingencies) and its environment.
Dy Liacco first pointed out in 1967 that a power system maybe identified to be operating in a
number of states.
The preventive state is actually the normal state. The term ‘preventive’ was used to stress the
‘Security’ aspect of the normal operation. Normal operating condition usually means that all the
apparatus are running within their prescribed limits, and all the system variables are within
acceptable ranges. The system should also continue to operate ‘normally’ even in the case of
credible contingencies. The operator should ‘foresee’ such contingencies (disturbances) and take
preventive control actions (as economically as possible) such that the system integrity and
quality of power supply is maintained.
Preventive State
The preventive state is actually the normal state. The term ‘preventive’ was used to stress the
‘Security’ aspect of the normal operation. Normal operating condition usually means that all the
apparatus are running within their prescribed limits, and all the system variables are within
acceptable ranges. The system should also continue to operate ‘normally’ even in the case of
credible contingencies. The operator should ‘foresee’ such contingencies (disturbances) and take
preventive control actions (as economically as possible) such that the system integrity and
quality of power supply is maintained.

Emergency state
The power system enters an emergency state when some of the components operating limits are
violated; some of the states wander outside the acceptable ranges, or when the system frequency
starts to decrease. The control objective in the emergency state is to relieve system stress by
appropriate actions. Economic considerations become secondary at this stage.
Restorative state
Restorative state is the condition when some parts (or whole) of the system has lost power. The
control objective in this state is to steer the system to a normal state again by taking appropriate
actions.
State transition diagram
If the emergency control actions also fail, the system may enter extremis state which is
characterized by disintegration of the entire system into smaller islands, or a complete system
blackout. It may take anywhere between few seconds to few minutes for a system to enter an
extremis state from a normal state. The restoration process however is very slow. It may take
several hours or even days to bring the system back to normal.

Major components of security assessment
System monitoring
Contingency analysis
Preventive and corrective actions
System Monitoring
The prerequisite for security assessment of a power system is the knowledge of the system states.
Monitoring the system is therefore the first step. Measurement devices dispersed throughout the
system help in getting a picture of the current operating state. The measurements can be in the
form of power injections, power flows, voltage, current, status of circuit breakers, switches,
transformer taps, generator output etc., which are telemetered to the control centre. Usually a
state estimator is used in the control centre to process these telemetered data and compute the
best estimates of the system states. Remote control of the circuit breakers, disconnector switches,
transformer taps etc. is generally possible. The entire measurement and control system is
commonly known as supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system.
Contingency Analysis
Once the current operating state is known, the next task is the contingency analysis. Results of
contingency analysis allow the system to be operated defensively. Major components of
contingency analysis are:
Contingency definition
Contingency selection
Contingency evaluation
Contingency definition involves preparing a list of probable contingencies. Contingency
selection process consists of selecting the set of most probable contingencies in preferred; they
need to be evaluated in terms of potential risk to the system. Usually, fast power flow solution
techniques such as DC power flow are used to quickly evaluate the risks associated with each
contingency. Finally, the selected contingencies are ranked in order of their security, till no
violation of operating limits is observed.
Preventive & Corrective Measures Preventive and corrective actions are needed to maintain a
secure operation of a system or to bring it to a secure operating state. Corrective actions such as
switching of VAR compensating devices, changing transformer taps and phase shifters etc. are

mainly automatic in nature, and involve short duration. Preventive actions such as generation
rescheduling involve longer time scales. Security-constrained optimal power flow is an example
of rescheduling the generations in the system in order to ensure a secure operation.
On-line security assessment
In earlier days, security assessment in a power system was mainly offline in nature. Predefined
set of rules or nomographs were used to assist the operators in the decision-making process.
However, due to the highly interconnected nature of modern power systems, and deregulated
energy market scenarios, operating conditions and even the topology of a power system changes
frequently. Off-line techniques for security assessment are therefore no- longer reliable in
modern power systems. On-line security assessment techniques use near-real-time measurements
from different locations in a power system, and continuously update the security assessment of
the system.


Linear sensitivity factors
Analyzing in details a large number of contingencies is a difficult task. An easy (approximate)

way to quickly compute any possible violation of operating limits is the one of linear sensitivity
factors. Two such sensitivity factors for checking line flow violations are generation shift factors
and line outage distribution factors.
Generation shift factors
They calculate the effect of change in generation on the line flows, as shown below:
where ali is the linearized generation shift factor for the l th line for a change in output of i th
generator; ∆fl is the MW change in power flow in the lth line; ∆Pi is the change in generation at
the i th bus.
Once the new values of flows are computed for all the lines, they are compared with
corresponding line flow limits. Operators are ‘alarmed’ in case of any limit violations. In a
practical power system, due to governor actions, the loss of generation at the bus i may be

compensated by their generators throughout the system. A frequently used method is to assume
that the loss of generation is distributed among participating generators in proportion to their
maximum MW rating.

Algorithm for Contingency Analysis

TRENDS IN POWER SYSTEM

RELIABILITY ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
Electrical power systems are very complex and highly integrated.

Failure in any part of the system can cause interruptions of supply to end
users. Power system reliability is increasingly a concern to the power
industry and society at large. At present, power system operations are to be
handled in a heterogeneous environment. Generally, reliability analysis is
being carried out during planning stage of power system operations. In order
to maintain the operational state of the power systems at the required levels
and subsequently to meet the load demand satisfactorily, the power system
operations such as state estimation, reliability analysis etc., are to be carried
out at frequent intervals. Perhaps, the above operations have to be invoked
dynamically whenever the power system resumes its operation back after had
experienced sudden failure or outage. Reliability analysis has to be carried
out at regular intervals during operating period of power systems in order to
monitor the customer requirement satisfaction at desired levels. The reliability
evaluation system should be dynamically adaptable to the current operating
conditions of the power systems.
Due to the increase in demand of power, the size of the power

system grows exponentially large. Private power industries have joined with
public sectors to cope up with the power demand. Power system operations

are becoming complex and the data required for analysis have been stored in
different formats and are distributed in a heterogeneous environment. The
power systems basic operations such as load flow, stability analysis,
reliability analysis etc., are being carried out using different power system
applications executing in heterogeneous platforms. Integration of responses
due to various power system operations is a major task and power system
applications should be interoperable even though every system has its own
way of representation and implemented using different paradigms. Integrity
can be achieved by modifying the legacy power system applications into
interoperable services either by converting the applications developed using
different paradigms into a single paradigm or an efficient solution has to be
found out to make the existing applications interoperable without modifying
the existing system. An effective way is needed to convert the power system
applications as services and publish the services over the Web and make them
easily discoverable. A service oriented open system made up of variety of
power system services operating on dissimilar platforms has be to developed
so that more extensive data and applications can be shared easily and flexibly.
The primary function of a power system is to supply its customers

with electrical energy as economically as possible with acceptable reliability
and quality. Power system reliability is defined as the ability of the system to
satisfy the customer demand. Demands for electric power with high reliability
and quality have increased tremendously in the past few decades due to the
digital revolution. It is expected that the requirements for high quality,
reliable power supply will continue to increase in the immediate future.
Customers such as commercial, industrial and residential users expect a
highly reliable supply with relatively low rates. The electric power industry
throughout the world is undergoing considerable changes in information
systems, and Web enabled service oriented architectural models are emerging

to support the integration of different power system applications. The

evolving changes in power system planning and operation needs require a
distributed control center that is decentralized, integrated, exible, and open.
As the markets expand and the power grid becomes more

congested, operational reliability is becoming more crucial. Maintaining
system reliability requires more robust data acquisition, better analysis and
faster coordinated controls. A distributed system is essential for meeting the
stringent timing and reliability requirements. To summarize, in a competitive
environment, economic decisions are made by market participants
individually and system wide reliability is achieved through coordination
among parties belonging to different companies, thus the paradigm has shifted
from centralized to decentralized decision making. This requires data and
application software in control centers to be decentralized and distributed.
The practice of interconnecting individual power systems into large

grids has resulted in economies in capital and operating expenses as well as
improved reliability (Ewart and Kirchmayer 1971). The full exploitation of
these benefits presents an increasingly complex problem to the power system
operator; consequently, the electric utility industry is devoting greater effort
to the application of automation technology to the solution of system op-
erating problems. The relevant developments in automation technology are
associated with analog and digital computers, data collection and supervisory
control equipment, communication devices, and displays. The computers are
being applied on a time-shared basis as a valuable tool in solving the
problems of power system planning, operations control, and operations
accounting, all of which involve both economic and reliability considerations.

POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY CONCEPTS
Electricity is a basic commodity that drives the economic

productivity and prosperity of a society. Modern electrical power systems
have the responsibility of providing a reliable and economic supply of
electrical energy to their customers. The economic and social effects of loss
of electric service can have significant impacts on both the utility supplying
electric energy and the end users of the service. Maintaining a reliable power
supply is therefore a very important issue in power system design and
operation. Reliability of a power system is generally designated as a measure
of the ability of the system to provide customers with adequate supply. It is
one of the primary performance criteria of power systems. Major outages can
have a significant economic impact on end users as well as power utilities.
Power system has been significantly affected by a wide range of outage
events caused by incorrect planning, operational error, equipment failures,
environmental conditions, adverse weather effects, and load conditions.
Large-scale blackouts are emphasizing the importance of reliability issues.
Reliability is one of the major factors for planning, design, operation, and
maintenance of electric power systems. Failures in any part of the system can
cause interruptions of supply to end users.
Due to the complexity of modeling and computation, it is a difficult

task to analyze the entire grid configuration. Traditionally, functional zones
are used to divide an overall power system into appropriate subsystems or
functional areas that can be analyzed separately (Billinton and Allan 1996).
These functional areas are generation, transmission and distribution. The
function of the generation system is to make sure that enough capacity is
available to meet the load / demand at any time. Transmission and distribution
systems need to be reliable in making sure the electricity generated can be

delivered to the consumers. System planners have been assigned the role of
planning for forecasting the load into the future and plant capacity addition to
meet the load and provide a level of reliability in case some of the plants are
out on maintenance or breakdown.
Reliability of the generation system is divided into adequacy and

security. System adequacy relates to the existence of sufficient generators
within the system to satisfy the consumer load demand or system operational
constraints. System adequacy is associated with static conditions of the
system and does not include system disturbances. System security on the
other hand relates to the ability of the system to respond to disturbances
arising within the system. Therefore system security is associated with the
response of the system to whatever perturbation it is subjected to. In this
study, the reliability evaluations are focused on the generation system
adequacy without taking into account of system security.
According to Endrenyi (1978), if an improvement in system

reliability is required, it can be achieved by using either better components or
a system design incorporating more redundancy. Redundancy in generation
system means the installation of more generating capacity than normally
required which will incur more cost for the added reliability since the
additional capacity added will only be needed at the times of emergency. In a
generation system study, the total system generation is examined to determine
its adequacy to meet the total system load requirement. This activity is usually
termed as “generating system adequacy assessment”. The transmission system
is ignored in generating system adequacy assessment and is treated as a load
point. The main idea of the generating system adequacy assessment is to
estimate the generating capacity required to meet the system demand and to
have excess capacity to cater for planned and forced outage events.

System adequacy involves the existence of sufficient facilities in

the system to satisfy the customer demand. These facilities include the
generating capacity required to generate enough energy and the transmission
and distribution elements needed to transfer the generated energy to the
customer load points. Adequacy involves static system conditions rather than
system disturbances and is affected by many factors such as the installed
capacity, unit sizes, unit availabilities, maintenance requirements, and
interconnections and so on. System security, however, concerns the ability of
the system to respond to disturbances. Power systems have to maintain certain
levels of static and spinning reserves in order to achieve a required level of
adequacy and security.
It becomes traditional (Billinton and Satish Jonnavithula 1996)

within the field of power system reliability evaluation to divide the power
system into three functional zones: generation, transmission, and distribution.
The three functional zones can be combined to form hierarchical levels. It has
been convenient to do so because utilities have traditionally been divided into
these functional zones for purposes of organization, planning, operations and /
or analysis. Although deregulation has effected the disaggregation of the
traditional utility into many separated organizations, most of these
organizations still have these corresponding internal divisions or are solely
dedicated to the oversight of one of these functional zones. The main purpose
of the functional zone division, in terms of reliability evaluation, is to provide
a succinct means for identifying the part of the power system being analyzed.
Figure 4.1 shows an organization of the functional zones in hierarchicallevels,
where the levels increase according to analysis complexity.
In a hierarchical level I (HL-I) study, the total system generation

including interconnected assistance is examined to determine its adequacy to
meet the total system load demand. Reliability assessment at HL-I is normally

defined as generating capacity adequacy evaluation. The transmission

network and the distribution facilities are not included in an assessment at the
HL-I level. Adequacy evaluation at hierarchical level II (HL-II) includes both
the generation and transmission in an assessment of the integrated ability of
the composite system to deliver energy to the bulk supply points. This
analysis is usually termed as composite system reliability evaluation (or bulk
power system reliability evaluation).
Functional
Zone I Hierarchical level I
(Generation) (HL-I)
Functional
Zone II Hierarchical level II
(Transmission) (HL-II)
Functional
Zone III Hierarchical level III
(Distribution) (HL-III)
Figure 4.1 Hierarchical Levels of Power System Functional Zones
Adequacy assessment at hierarchical level III (HL-III) includes all

of the three functional zones and is not easily conducted in a practical system
due to the computational complexity and scale of the problem. These analyses
are usually performed only in the distribution functional zone.

GENERATING CAPACITY ADEQUACY EVALUATION
Hierarchical level I (HL-I) corresponds to analysis of the generation

function only. This was the earliest power system reliability problem
addressed, with the first work during the year 1933-1934, with a later seminal
contribution in 1947. The so-called “Calabrese” method forms the basis of the
loss of load approach which is still the most widely used probabilistic
technique in the reliability evaluation of generating capacity. In HL-I
evaluation, the reliability of the transmission is ignored, and the only concern
is in estimating the necessary generating capacity to satisfy the system
demand and to perform corrective and preventive maintenance on the
generating units. Adequacy evaluation at HL-I involves determination of the
total system generation required to satisfy the total load requirement. In the
study of adequacy evaluation, the reliability of the transmission and
distribution zones and their ability to move the generated energy to the
customer load points are not included. The basic model at HL-I is shown in
Figure 4.2.
Total System Total System

G
Generation Load
Figure 4.2 Basic Model
The basic modelling approach for the generating system adequacy

assessment consists of three parts as shown in Figure 4.3.

Generation Load
Model Model
Risk
Model
Figure 4.3 Conceptual Model in Adequacy Assessment at HL-I
The generation and load models are convolved to form an

appropriate risk model where the element of interest is the risk of generation
capacity less than the load. In short, adequacy evaluation of generation
systems consists of three general steps:
Create a generation capacity model based on the operating

characteristics of the generating units
Build an appropriate load model
Combine the generation capacity model with load model to

obtain a risk model
The risk indices obtained are overall system adequacy indices and
do not include transmission constraints and transmission reliabilities. A wide
range of methods has been developed to perform generating capacity
reliability evaluation. These techniques can be categorized into two types,
analytical methods and simulation methods. Analytical methods represent the
system by mathematical models and evaluate the reliability indices using
direct numerical solutions. Simulation methods estimate the reliability indices
by simulating the actual process and random behaviour of the system, treating
the problem as a series of experiments. The most widely used analytical

technique in HL-I evaluation is the loss of load approach. This process has
been extended to include the loss of energy.
Both analytical and simulation methods have their own merits and
demerits. Analytical techniques can provide the expected index values in a
relative short computation time. Assumptions are sometimes needed to
simplify the problem, particularly when the system and the operating
procedures are complex. Simulation methods generally require longer
computing times and more computational resources, but theoretically, can
include all aspects and contingencies in the power system. There is increasing
interest in modeling the system behaviour more comprehensively and in
producing a more informative set of reliability indices. The development of
increased computing power has made the use of simulation methods a
practical and viable tool for large system reliability assessment.
The reliability indices obtained indicate the ability of the generating

facilities to meet the system demand. In the analytical method, the generating
system model used for generation capacity adequacy assessment is a Capacity
Outage Probability Table (COPT) which can be created using a recursive
technique and for the load model, the daily peak load or hourly load for a
period of one year is normally used to form the Load Probability Table (LPT).
According to Wang and McDonald (1994) the process of evaluation of power
system reliability starts by creating a mathematical model of a system or a
subsystem and then proceeding with a numerical solution, summarized in the
following general steps:
Define the boundary of the system and list all the components
included
Provide reliability data such as failure rate, repair rate, repair

time, scheduled maintenance time, etc., for every component

Establish reliability model for every component
Define the mode of system failure, or define the criterion for

normal and faulty systems
Establish a mathematical model for the system reliability and

its basic assumptions
Select an algorithm to calculate the system reliability indices
Generating system reliability evaluation is an important aspect for

future system capacity expansion. It provides a measure of reliability or
adequacy to make sure that the total generation system capacity is sufficient
to provide adequate electricity when it is needed. The estimation of reliability
indices is essential at the time of planning and expansion. Generally various
number of basic reliability indices such as Loss of Load Probability (LOLP),
Loss of Load Expectation (LOLE), Loss of Energy Probability (LOEP), and
Loss of Energy Expectation (LOEE) are used to assess generating capacity
adequacy. The power system reliability analysis needs huge volume of failure
data, which are heterogeneous in nature. A convenient data representation
model is required to enhance the interoperability between heterogeneous
applications.
CURRENT TRENDS IN POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY

ESTIMATION
The physical structure of the power system network changes

dynamically in the deregulation environment and its size is keeping on
increasing to meet the power demand. Consequently, the power system
operations are becoming extremely complex. As the electricity industry
moves towards restructuring, it seems clear that system reliability will
continue to be an extremely important area of research. Application of
Information and Communication technologies has become inevitable in the

analysis of modern power systems regarding its planning, operations, control

and maintenance. Entities with a system wide perspective, such as a power
pool or other control area or even generating companies with large generator
portfolios will most likely perform various types of reliability analyses to
determine whether there is an adequate electricity supply. Many electricity
production simulation models have been adapted to the new market paradigm.
The development of power systems has been rapidly changed at the same
time, the range of power of computers has increased by orders of magnitude,
while their costs per unit of throughput and size have markedly decreased.
Both analytical and Monte Carlo simulation models are being

effectively utilized in the estimation of power system performance indices.
Traditional software design based on a procedural view, written in
FORTRAN and C computer languages, is strongly linked to the power system
industry, mainly due to its mathematical vocation. These languages have been
supporting power system studies for a long time. In general, FORTRAN is the
most widely used programming language to support, for instance, reliability
studies in a variety of power utilities and research academic environments.
This happens mainly due to its suitable performance when running with
mathematical approaches, as well as their wide mathematical libraries. One of
the objectives of the current research is to focus on new ways to build remote
services for power system reliability evaluation in order to emphasize the
natural transition from traditional tools to a modern computing environment.
This environment will be adequate to handle the size of the modern power
systems and its complex operations.
Edmund Handschin et al (1998) had proposed an object oriented

simulation model for the purpose of determining a dynamic plan for a
transmission system in a deregulated open access environment. They have
developed a global object oriented system for power system representation

and for solving transmission planning problems. Over the last two decades,
the object-oriented programming and the object-oriented design have
improved the software development for power system analysis. Fangxing Li
and Broadwater (2004) have presented an architectural design for a
framework which aims to summarize the commonalities in software design
for power distribution systems. They have discussed the benefits of the
framework with respect to cost, reusability, maintenance and language
independent interfaces. The architectural framework developed by them
supports common distribution system algorithms such as load flows, short
circuits and reliability assessment. The application developers who use this
framework can extend its functionality to support optimal reconfiguration,
risk analysis etc. The framework also provides an environment to model
distributed computing to allow power system applications running at different
machines in client-server mode.
The framework consists of four layers: component layer, iterator layer,

algorithm layer and distributed algorithm layer. The functions of the
component layer are classified into different groups that include directly
connected components, load flow related parameters and reliability related
parameters. The iterator layer presents an abstraction of topological
management to traverse power distribution systems according to prescribed
traversal rules. The algorithm layer models the fundamental algorithms like
load flow, short circuit and reliability algorithm. The distributed algorithm
layer provides an abstraction of distributed computations. Since the
architecture of this framework is layer-driven with strict top-down
dependencies, the software coupling is reduced and reusability and
extensibility are gained much and improved.
Ramachandran and Sankaranarayanan (1993) have developed a

recursive algorithm to extract minimal-cuts from fault tree representation of

the power system networks and hence obtained the system failure probability.
A non-linear tree structure is used to construct fault trees that represent
system conditions symbolically and include all the basic fault events that may
occur or expected to occur in the system. Due to complexity in the operation
and maintenance of the power system, even a power system network of small
size has large number of basic fault events. The way in which the fault tree is
represented has a great influence in the amount of storage requirements and
the computation time. An object oriented model had been developed to
represent the fault tree using non-linear tree structure and the behaviour for
minimal cuts extraction was encapsulated. This approach was tested with a
power system of 3 buses and 5 lines, a power supply system and with a
sample transmission system.
Ozdemir (2010) demonstrated the reliability estimation of a sample

transmission network shown in Figure 4.4 using minimal-cuts.
1 H1 2
T1 8 MW
T2
10 MW 10 MW
H2 H3
G1 8 MW G2
10 MW 8 MW
10 MW
3
L1
10 MW
Figure 4.4 Sample Power Transmission

System
The power transmission capacities of the three transmission lines
H1, H2 and H3 are 8 MW where a 10 MW load is consumed by two generators
G1 and G2. The reliability values of the components are given as follows.

RG1 = 0.98, RT1 = 0.99
RG2 = 0.97, RT2 = 0.98
RH1=RH2= RH3 = 0.98
The equivalents of G1-T1 and G2-T2 are represented by A and B

respectively.
RA = RG1 . RT1 = 0.9702
RB = RG2 . RT2 = 0.9506
QA = 1 - RA = 0.0298
QB = 1 - RB = 0.0494
where, QA and QB are the failure probabilities. Since a minimal path should
provide a power of 10 MW, the components A, B and H1 comprise 2/3 of the
system which is in series with H2 and H3 as shown in Figure 2.5.
In B H2 H3 Out
H1
Figure 4.5 Series-Parallel Representation of Sample Power

Transmission Network
The extracted minimal paths are,
{ A H1 H2 H3, B H1 H2 H3 and A B H2 H3 }

and the derived minimal-cuts are,
{ H2, H3, A B, A H1 and B H1 }
Using these minimal-cuts, the failure probability of the system is

estimated as follows:
5
QS Q Ci
i 1
QS Q (C i ) Q(Ci Cj)
(by omitting the third and higher order terms)
Since QH1, QH2 and QH3 are equal,
Qs QH + QH + QAQB + QAQH + QBQH - Q2H
QS 0.043056
and hence the reliability of the sample transmission network Rs is estimated as

follows:
RS = 1- QS = 0.956944
The above power transmission network has been represented as a

fault tree with all possible fault events and minimal cuts are extracted using
the recursive algorithm proposed by the authors, Ramachandran and
Sankaranarayanan (1993). The probability of occurrence of the fault event
represented as the root element of the fault tree is estimated. A logical
database is created to access the intermediate event by pre-order traversal and
by using the exact location of the event in the fault tree, the probability of
occurrence of this event is estimated by using Boolean operations AND / OR,
which are associated to constitute that fault event.

Brown (2002) have developed a Web based model for distribution

system planning. They have described the implementation of a Web based
distribution system analysis tool, which is named as “Internet based Planning
and Analysis of Distribution Systems – iPAD” tool. This tool has a user
interface, an analysis engine for each and every power system operation and
data storage. Initially the tool was used to analyze radial power flow, radial
feeder system reliability assessment and network security assessment. Web
based feeder planning strategy proposed by them has the potential to provide
better feeder planning at a lower cost. It has the potential to be just as full
featured as locally installed software, but is not subject to the disadvantages
of expensive maintenance and version control. Application service providers
have the ability to provide mass customization so that the tool matches each
planning department’s unique needs and processes, and can offer their
services through off balance sheet lease agreements.
Yeddanapudi et al (2005) have developed a predictive reliability

assessment tool for distribution systems. The predictive reliability analysis
has been carried out on an actual distribution system and the difference in
indices computed using historical and predictive methods is illustrated.
Initially, historical reliability indices have been estimated for a 66 feeder
distribution system by considering outages caused by overhead or
underground line failures, outages due to transmission failures, outages
caused by failures of components like switches, fuses, substation breakers
etc., and events caused by public interference. In the proposed predictive
method of estimation of reliability indices of distribution system, the failure
rates and average repair times of each component are considered. In this
predictive analysis, each contingency is simulated; its effect on each of the
components in the system has been determined and weighted by the
probability of the contingency. The predictive algorithm has been iterated by

adjusting the input outage data in order to obtain reliability indices that
matched with those obtained from historical analysis.
One of the major benefits of power distribution system fault

forecasting is the use of such information to assess the reliability of the
system. Adediji and Joseph (2009) have discussed the need for fast and
accurate techniques to estimate the reliability of power distribution systems.
The duration of interruption in power distribution system is comparatively
high and comes at random. A software model has been developed based on
Box-Jenkins time series mathematical techniques for fault predictions and
reliability calculations of distribution systems. The system analysis,
forecasting and reliability estimation modules have been built into the
software model named as “Reliability Calculation Analysis Software”. The
software model was used to simulate faults for another ten years from which
the overall reliability of the system was determined. The adequacy of the
chosen mathematical model for fault prediction was determined by comparing
the computed chi-square with standard statistical values. The developed
software program is flexible and can be upgraded as data varies.
Da Rosa et al (2010) applied intelligent agent techniques with

sequential Monte Carlo simulation for power system reliability assessment.
The techniques used in power system reliability assessment can be divided
into two categories: analytical and simulation. Analytical approaches adopt
state space estimation, but simulation can either adopt state space
representation or chronological representation. The reliability assessment of
large power systems by chronological Monte Carlo simulation is very
expensive both in time and computational requirements. An intelligent
distributed environment has been created and sequential and non-sequential
Monte Carlo simulation approaches have been used for estimating power
system reliability indices by adopting intelligent agent features. Multiple

agents have been deployed such as Sequence Producer Agent, State Evaluator
Agent and Index Calculator Agent in order to handle the state selection, state
evaluation and index calculation stages of Monte Carlo simulation while
estimating reliability indices. Briefly, a multi-agent system is proposed to
apply with sequential Monte Carlo simulation for estimating reliability
indices. The proposed methodology is applied to the IEEE-RTS system and
the obtained results are compared with analytical and chronological Monte
Carlo simulation techniques to verify the performance achieved by the
sequential Monte Carlo simulation with intelligent agents.
The power system industry has been utilizing advancement in

communication and information technology over the years in order to
improve efficiency, reliability, security and quality of service. Increasing
complexity of power grids, growing demand and requirement for greater grid
reliability and security are the factors that concern about the need for
advanced communication technologies for proper co-ordination and
appropriate control actions in power system operations. Application of
modern technologies for monitoring and control of power system operations
intelligently leads to the concept of ‘smart grid’. Khosrow Moslehi and Ranjit
Kumar (2010) have analysed the Smart Grid with reliability perspective. Grid
reliability challenges have been analyzed in detail and the Smart Grid
resource types, namely renewable resources, demand response, electric
storage and transportation are critically reviewed. Reliability has always been
in the forefront of power grid design and operation due to the cost of outages
to customers.
Wind and Solar are the most rapidly expanding renewable

resources. The unpredictability of wind energy resources is indicated by their
low capacity factors, which are much lower than conventional generators.
This creates challenging problem in the control and reliability of the power

grid. The wind power forecasting errors also present scheduling problems.
Solar is the most abundant source of energy. The variability of solar energy
resources is very much impacted by climate and sunlight availability. Large
scale solar resources face various transmission limitations. Demand response
allows consumer load reduction in response to emergency conditions on the
electric grid. Such condition is more prevalent during peak load or congested
operation. Demand response does not substantially change the total energy
consumption since a large fraction of the energy saved during the load
curtailment period is consumed at a more appropriate time.
Load rejection as an emergency resource to protect the grid from

disruption is well understood and is implemented to operate either by system
operator command or through under-frequency and under-voltage relays. In a
Smart Grid, the load rejection schemes can be enhanced to act more
intelligently and based on customer participation. As such, demand response
schemes could improve reliability.
Storage resources tend to make the net demand profile flatter and
hence, are expected to improve reliability. Various storage technologies are
emerging to store the wind and solar energies. From reliability point of view,
electric transportation has features similar to both demand response resources
and storage resources. Plug-in electric vehicles continue to become more
popular as environmental concerns increase. The authors have developed an
architectural framework to facilitate the design, development and grid-wide
integration of various components as well as the emergence of standards and
protocols needed for the Smart Grid.
In spite of tremendous research works were reported in the

literature regarding Web enabled solutions for power system analysis,
comparatively less attention has been given to the reliability analysis. Due to
complex nature of power system operations and deregulation polices, it is of

MODULE-5
TRANSIENT STABILITY STUDIES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Power system stability of modern large inter-connected systems is a major problem for
secure operation of the system. Recent major black-outs across the globe caused by system
instability, even in very sophisticated and secure systems, illustrate the problems facing
secure operation of power systems. Earlier, stability was defined as the ability of a system to
return to normal or stable operation after having been subjected to some form of disturbance.
This fundamentally refers to the ability of the system to remain in synchronism. However,
modern power systems operate under complex interconnections, controls and extremely
stressed conditions. Further, with increased automation and use of electronic equipment, the
quality of power has gained utmost importance, shifting focus on to concepts of voltage
stability, frequency stability,
inter-area oscillations etc.
The IEEE/CIGRE Joint Task Force on stability terms and conditions have proposed the
following definition in 2004: “Power System stability is the ability of an electric power
system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium
after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded, so that
practically the entire system remains intact”. The Power System is an extremely non-linear
and dynamic system, with operating parameters continuously varying. Stability is hence, a
function of the initial operating condition and the nature of the disturbance. Power systems
are continually subjected to small disturbances in the form of load changes. The system must
be in a position to be able to adjust to the changing conditions and operate satisfactorily. The
system must also withstand large disturbances, which may even cause structural changes due
to isolation of some faulted elements. A power system may be stable for a particular (large)
disturbance and unstable for another disturbance. It is impossible to design a system which
is stable under all disturbances. The power system is generally designed to be stable under
those disturbances which have a high degree of occurrence. The response to a disturbance is
extremely complex and involves practically all the equipment of the power system. For
example, a short circuit leading to a line isolation by circuit breakers will cause variations in
the power flows, network bus voltages and generators rotor speeds. The voltage variations
will actuate the voltage regulators in the system and generator speed variations will actuate
the prime mover governors; voltage and frequency variations will affect the system loads. In
stable systems, practically all generators and loads remain connected, even though parts of
the system may be isolated to preserve bulk operations. On the other hand, an unstable
system condition could lead to cascading outages and a shutdown of a major portion of the
power system.

ROTOR ANGLE STABILITY
Rotor angle stability refers to the ability of the synchronous machines of an interconnected
power system to remain in synchronism after being subjected to a disturbance. Instability
results in some generators accelerating (decelerating) and losing synchronism with other
generators. Rotor angle stability depends on the ability of each synchronous machine to
maintain equilibrium between electromagnetic torque and mechanical torque. Under steady
state, there is equilibrium between the input mechanical torque and output electromagnetic
torque of each generator, and its speed remains a constant. Under a disturbance, this
equilibrium is upset and the generators accelerate/decelerate according to the mechanics of a
rotating body. Rotor angle stability is further categorized as follows:
Small single (or small disturbance) rotor angle stability
It is the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism under small disturbances. In
this case, the system equation can be linearized around the initial operating point and the
stability depends only on the operating point and not on the disturbance. Instability may
result in
(i) A non oscillatory or a periodic increase of rotor angle
(ii) (ii) Increasing amplitude of rotor oscillations due to insufficient damping.
The first form of instability is largely eliminated by modern fast acting voltage regulators
and the second form of instability is more common. The time frame of small signal stability
is of the order of 10-20 seconds after a disturbance.
Large-signal rotor angle stability or transient stability
This refers to the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism under large
disturbances, such as short circuit, line outages etc. The system response involves large
excursions of the generator rotor angles. Transient stability depends on both the initial
operating point and the disturbance parameters like location, type, magnitude etc. Instability
is normally in the form of a periodic angular separation. The time frame of interest is 3-5
seconds after disturbance. The term dynamic stability was earlier used to denote the steady-
state stability in the presence of automatic controls (especially excitation controls) as
opposed to manual controls. Since all generators are equipped with automatic controllers
today, dynamic stability has lost relevance and the Task Force has recommended against its
usage.
5.2 MECHANICS OF ROTATORY MOTION
Since a synchronous machine is a rotating body, the laws of mechanics of rotating bodies
are applicable to it. In rotation we first define the fundamental quantities. The angle _m is
defined, with respect to a circular arc with its center at the vertex of the angle, as the ratio of
the arc length s to radius r.









This is the equivalent inertia constant on a base of 100 MVA and can be used when the two
machines swing coherently.
5.3 POWER–ANGLE EQUATION

:
In solving the swing equation, certain assumptions are normally made (i) Mechanical power
nput Pm is a constant during the period of interest, immediately after the disturbance (ii)
Rotor speed changes are insignificant. (iii) Effect of voltage regulating loop during the
transient is neglected i.e the excitation is assumed to be a constant. As discussed in section
9.4, the power–angle relationship plays a vital role in the solution of the swing equation.
POWER–ANGLE EQUATION FOR A NON–SALIENT POLE MACHINE:
The simplest model for the synchronous generator is that of a constant voltage behind an
impedance. This model is called the classical model and can be used for cylindrical rotor
(non–salient pole) machines. Practically all high–speed turbo alternators are of cylindrical
rotor construction, where the physical air gap around the periphery of the rotor is uniform.
This type of generator has approximately equal magnetic reluctance, regardless of the
angular position of the rotor, with respect to the armature mmf.

5.4 POWER ANGLE EQUATION FOR A SALIENT POLE MACHINE:
Here because of the salient poles, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit in which flows the
flux produced by an armature mmf in line with the quadrature axis is higher than that of the
magnetic circuit in which flows the flux produced by the armature mmf in line with the
direct axis. These two components of armature mmf are proportional to the corresponding
components of armature current. The component of armature current producing an mmf
acting in line with direct axis is called the direct component, Id. The component of armature
current producing an mmf acting in line with the quadrature axis is called the quadrature
axis component, Iq.
(9.42) gives the steady state power angle relationship for a salient pole machine. The second
term does not depend on the excitation and is called the reluctance power component. This
component makes the maximum power greater than in the classical model. However, the
angle at which the maximum power occurs is less than 90o.
5.5 TRANSIENT STABILITY:
As defined earlier, transient stability is the ability of the system to remain stable under large
disturbances like short circuits, line outages, generation or load loss etc. The evaluation of
the transient stability is required offline for planning, design etc. and online for load
management, emergency control and security assessment. Transient stability analysis deals
with actual solution of the nonlinear differential equations describing the dynamics of the
machines and their controls and interfacing it with the algebraic equations describing the

interconnections through the transmission network. Since the disturbance is large, linearized
analysis of the swing equation (which describes the rotor dynamics) is not possible. Further,
the fault may cause structural changes in the network, because of which the power angle
curve prior to fault, during the fault and post fault may be different. Due to these reasons, a
general stability criteria for transient stability cannot be established, as was done in the case
of steady state stability (namely PS > 0). Stability can be established, for a given fault, by
actual solution of the swing equation. The time taken for the fault to be cleared (by the
circuit breakers) is called the clearing time. If the fault is cleared fast enough, the probability
of the system remaining stable after the clearance is more. If the fault persists for a longer
time, likelihood of instability is increased. Critical clearing time is the maximum time
available for clearing the fault, before the system loses stability. Modern circuit breakers are
equipped with auto reclosure facility, wherein the breaker automatically recloses after two
sequential openings. If the fault still persists, the breakers open permanently. Since most
faults are transient, the first reclosure is in general successful. Hence, transient stability has
been greatly enhanced by auto closure breakers.
Some common assumptions made during transient stability studies are as follows:
1. Transmission line and synchronous machine resistances are neglected. Since resistance
introduces a damping term in the swing equation, this gives pessimistic results.
2. Effect of damper windings is neglected which again gives pessimistic results.
3. Variations in rotor speed are neglected.
4. Mechanical input to the generator is assumed constant. The governor control loop is
neglected. This also leads to pessimistic results.
5. The generator is modeled as a constant voltage source behind a transient reactance,
neglecting the voltage regulator action.
6. Loads are modeled as constant admittances and absorbed into the bus admittance matrix.
The above assumptions, vastly simplify the equations. A digital computer program for
transient stability analysis can easily include more detailed generator models and effect of
controls, the discussion of which is beyond the scope of present treatment. Studies on the
transient stability of an SMIB system, can shed light on some important aspects of stability
of larger systems. The figure below shows an example of how the clearing time has an effect
on the swing curve of the machine.

5.6 Modified Euler’s method:
Euler’s method is one of the easiest methods to program for solution of differential
equations using a digital computer . It uses the Taylor’s series expansion, discarding all
second–order and higher–order terms. Modified Euler’s algorithm uses the derivatives at the
beginning of a time step, to predict the values of the dependent variables at the end of the
step (t1 = t0 +∆t). Using the predicted values, the derivatives at the end of the interval are
computed. The average of the two derivatives is used in updating the variables.
Consider two simultaneous differential equations:

Starting from initial values x0, y0, t0 at the beginning of a time step and a step size h we
solve as follows:
Let
x 1 and y1 are used in the next iteration. To solve the swing equation by Modified Euler’s
method, it is written as two first order differential equations:

Starting from an initial value _o, _o at the beginning of any time step, and choosing a step
size _t s, the equations to be solved in modified Euler’s are as follows:




5.7



5.8












Generating units of present day have lower values of H, due to advanced cooling techniques,
which have made it possible to increase the rating of the machines without significant
increase in the size. Modern control schemes like generator excitation control, Turbine valve
control, single-pole operation of circuit breakers and fast-acting circuit breakers with auto
re-closure facility have helped in enhancing overall system stability.
Factors which can improve transient stability are

(i) Reduction of transfer reactance by using parallel lines.
(ii) Reducing transmission line reactance by reducing conductor spacing and increasing
conductor diameter, by using hollow cores.
(iii) Use of bundled conductors.
(iv) Series compensation of the transmission lines with series capacitors. This also increases
the steady state stability limit. However it can lead to problem of sub-synchronous
resonance.
(v) Since most faults are transient, fast acting circuit breakers with rapid re-closure facility
can aid stability.
(vi) The most common type of fault being the single-line-to-ground fault, selective single
pole opening and re-closing can improve stability.
(vii) Use of braking resistors at generator buses. During a fault, there is a sudden decrease in
electric power output of generator. A large resistor, connected at the generator bus, would
partially compensate for the load loss and help in decreasing the acceleration of the
generator. The braking resistors are switched during a fault through circuit breakers and
remain for a few cycles after fault is cleared till system voltage is restored.
(viii) Short circuit current limiters, which can be used to increase transfer impedance during
fault, there by reducing short circuit currents.
(ix) A recent method is fast valving of the turbine where in the mechanical power is lowered
quickly during the fault, and restored once fault is cleared.
**************************************************************************

5.1 ZBUS building
FORMATION OF BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX
The bus impedance matrix is the inverse of the bus admittance matrix. An alternative
method is possible, based on an algorithm to form the bus impedance matrix directly from
system parameters and the coded bus numbers. The bus impedance matrix is formed
adding one element at a time to a partial network of the given system. The performance
equation of the network in bus frame of reference in impedance form using the currents as
independent variables is given in matrix form by
When expanded so as to refer to a n bus system, (9) will be of the form
Now assume that the bus impedance matrix Zbus is known for a partial network of m
buses and a known reference bus. Thus, Zbus of the partial network is of dimension mxm.
If now a new element is added between buses p and q we have the following two
possibilities:
(i) p is an existing bus in the partial network and q is a new bus; in this case p-q is a
branch added to the p-network as shown in Fig 1a, and

(ii) both p and q are buses existing in the partial network; in this case p-q is a link
added to the p-network as shown in Fig 1b.

If the added element ia a branch, p-q, then the new bus impedance matrix would be of
order m+1, and the analysis is confined to finding only the elements of the new row and
column (corresponding to bus-q) introduced into the original matrix. If the added element
ia a link, p-q, then the new bus impedance matrix will remain unaltered with regard to its
order. However, all the elements of the original matrix are updated to take account of the
effect of the link added.
ADDITION OF A BRANCH
Consider now the performance equation of the network in impedance form with the added
branch p-q, given by
It is assumed that the added branch p-q is mutually coupled with some elements of the
partial network and since the network has bilateral passive elements only, we have
Vector ypq-rs is not equal to zero and Zij= Zji " i,j=1,2,…m,q
(12)
To find Zqi:
The elements of last row-q and last column-q are determined by injecting a current of 1.0
pu at the bus-i and measuring the voltage of the bus-q with respect to the reference bus-0,
as shown in Fig.2. Since all other bus currents are zero, we have from (11) that
Ek = Zki Ii = Zki " k = 1, 2,…i.…...p,….m, q

(13)
Hence, Eq = Zqi ; Ep = Zpi ………
Also, Eq=Ep -vpq ; so that Zqi = Zpi - vpq " i =1, 2,…i.…...p,….m, _q
(14)
To find vpq:
In terms of the primitive admittances and voltages across the elements, the current through
the elements is given by

Fig.2 Calculation for Zqi


Special Cases
The following special cases of analysis concerning ZBUS building can be considered with
respect to the addition of branch to a p-network.

ADDITION OF A LINK
Consider now the performance equation of the network in impedance form with the added
link p-l, (p-l being a fictitious branch and l being a fictitious node) given by
It is assumed that the added branch p-q is mutually coupled with some elements of the
partial network and since the network has bilateral passive elements only, we have
To find Zli:
The elements of last row-l and last column-l are determined by injecting a current of 1.0
pu at the bus-i and measuring the voltage of the bus-q with respect to the reference bus-0,
as shown in Fig.3. Further, the current in the added element is made zero by connecting a
voltage source, el in series with element p-q, as shown. Since all other bus currents are
zero, we have from (25) that

To find vpq:
In terms of the primitive admittances and voltages across the elements, the current through
the elements is given by


From (39), it is thus observed that, when a link is added to a ref. bus, then the situation is
similar to adding a branch to a fictitious bus and hence the following steps are followed:

1. The element is added similar to addition of a branch (case-b) to obtain the new matrix
of order m+1.
2. The extra fictitious node, l is eliminated using the node elimination algorithm.
Case (d): If there is no mutual coupling, then elements of pq rs y , are zero. Further, if p is
not the reference node, then
5..2.1 MODIFICATION OF ZBUS

FOR NETWORK CHANGES
An element which is not coupled to any other element can be removed easily. The Zbus is
modified as explained in sections above, by adding in parallel with the element (to be
removed), a link whose impedance is equal to the negative of the impedance of the
element to be removed. Similarly, the impedance value of an element which is not coupled
to any other element can be changed easily. The Zbus is modified again as explained in
sections above, by adding in parallel with the element (whose impedance is to be
changed), a link element of impedance value chosen such that the parallel equivalent
impedance is equal to the desired value of impedance. When mutually coupled elements
are removed, the Zbus is modified by introducing appropriate changes in the bus currents
of the original network to reflect the changes introduced due to the removal of the
elements.
Examples on ZBUS building
Example 1: For the positive sequence network data shown in table below, obtain ZBUS
by building procedure.
Solution:
The given network is as shown below with the data marked on it. Assume the elements to
be added as per the given sequence: 0-1, 0-3, 1-2, and 2-3.

Fig. E1: Example System

Consider building ZBUS as per the various stages of building through the consideration of
the corresponding partial networks as under:
Step-1: Add element–1 of impedance 0.25 pu from the external node-1 (q=1) to internal
ref. node-0 (p=0). (Case-a), as shown in the partial network;
Step-2: Add element–2 of impedance 0.2 pu from the external node-3 (q=3) to internal ref.
node-0 (p=0). (Case-a), as shown in the partial network;

Step-3: Add element–3 of impedance 0.08 pu from the external node-2 (q=2) to internal node-
1 (p=1). (Case-b), as shown in the partial network;
Step-4: Add element–4 of impedance 0.06 pu between the two internal nodes, node-2
(p=2) to node-3 (q=3). (Case-d), as shown in the partial network;

The fictitious node l is eliminated further to arrive at the final impedance matrix as under:



Solution: The specified system is considered with the reference node denoted by node-0.
By its inspection, we can obtain the bus impedance matrix by building procedure by
following the steps through the p-networks as under:
Step1: Add branch 1 between node 1 and reference node. (q =1, p = 0)
Step2: Add branch 2, between node 2 and reference node. (q = 2, p = 0).

Step3: Add branch 3, between node 1 and node 3 (p = 1, q = 3)
Step 4: Add element 4, which is a link between node 1 and node 2. (p = 1, q = 2)

Now the extra node-l has to be eliminated to obtain the new matrix of step-4, using the
algorithmic relation:
Step 5: Add link between node 2 and node 3 (p = 2, q=3)


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Power System Analysis-2 (17EE71) 2020-21

1.1 ELEMENTARY LINEAR GRAPH THEORY: IMPORTANT TERMS

The geometrical interconnection of the various branches of a network is called the

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Loop : A sub-graph L of a graph G is a loop if

Fig 1a. Single line diagram of a power system

Fig 1b. Reactance diagram

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Fig 1c. Oriented Graph

Cutset : It is a set of branches of a connected graph G which satisfies the following

The number of branches: b = n-1 (1)

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1.2 Examples on Basics of LG Theory:

Fig. E1a. Single line diagram of Example System

Fig. E1b. Oriented Graph of Fig. E1a.

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Fig. E1c. Basic Cutsets of Fig. E1a.

Fig. E1d. Basic Loops of Fig. E1a.

1.3 INCIDENCE MATRICES

Element–node incidence matrix: Aˆ

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The incidence of branches to nodes in a connected graph is given by the element-node

1.4 Bus incidence matrix: A

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A is a rectangular matrix, hence it is singular. Ab is a non-singular square matrix of

Examples on Bus Incidence Matrix:

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Fig. E2. Sample Network-Oriented Graph

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Fig. E3b. Oriented Graph of system of Fig-E3a.

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1.4 PRIMITIVE NETWORKS

General representation of a network element: In general, a network element may

Fig.2 Representation of a primitive network element (a) Impedance form (b)

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jpq= source current in shunt with the element p-q,

vpq + epq = zpqipq (in its impedance form)

Primitive network matrices:

Examples on Primitive Networks:

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Fig. E4 Oriented Graph

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2. FORMATION OF YBUS AND ZBUS

EBUS = ZBUS IBUS

EBR = ZBR IBR

ELOOP = ZLOOP ILOOP

2.1 Rule of Inspection

At node 1: I1 =Y1V1 + Y3 (V1-V3) + Y6 (V1 – V2)

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At node 3: 0 = Y3 (V3-V1) + Y4V3 + Y5 (V3 – V2) (12)

Fig. 3 Example System for finding YBUS

Yii = S yij (j = 1,2,…….n)

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2.2 Bus impedance matrix

Examples on Rule of Inspection:

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2.3 SINGULAR TRANSFORMATIONS

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Bus admittance matrix, YBUS and Bus impedance matrix, ZBUS

IBUS = YBUS EBUS (17)

At i +At j = At [y] v (18)