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Powertrain & Calibration 101: John Bucknell Daimlerchrysler Powertrain Systems Engineering December 4, 2006
Powertrain & Calibration 101: John Bucknell Daimlerchrysler Powertrain Systems Engineering December 4, 2006
Background
Architecture
Powertrain terms Thermodynamics Mechanical Design Combustion Cylinder Filling & Emptying Aerodynamics
Calibration
What is a Powertrain?
Particularly, the architecture comprising all the subsystems required to convert this energy to work
High energy density of fuel leads to high power to weight ratio, especially when combusting with atmospheric oxygen External combustion has losses due to multiple inefficiencies (primarily heat loss from condensing of working fluid), internal combustion has less inefficiencies Heat engines use working fluids which is the simplest of all energy conversion methods
Characteristics
Slider-crank mechanism has high mechanical efficiency (piston skirt rubbing is source of 5060% of all firing friction) Piston-cylinder mechanism has high singlestage compression ratio capability leads to high thermal efficiency capability Fair to poor air pump, limiting power potential without additional mechanisms
Vd Vc CR Vc
Reciprocating Engines
Most layouts created during second World War as aircraft manufacturers struggled to make the least-compromised installation
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Terms
MEP Mean Effective Pressure Average cylinder pressure over measuring period Torque Normalized to Engine Displacement (VD) BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure 4 Torque(Nm) 48 Torque(ftlb)
BMEP (kPa) VD (liter ) BMEP (psi) VD (cu.in.)
IMEP Indicated Mean Effective Pressure MEP of Compression and Expansion Strokes PMEP Pumping Mean Effective Pressure MEP of Exhaust and Intake Strokes FFMEP Firing Friction Mean Effective Pressure
P dV
Specific Power Power per unit, typically displacement or weight Pressure/Volume Diagram Engineering tool to graph cylinder pressure
Indicated Work
TDC
BDC
Source: Design and Sim of Four Strokes
Pumping Work
TDC
BDC
Source: Design and Sim of Four Strokes
1878 Niklaus Otto built first successful four stroke engine 1885 Gottlieb Daimler built first high-speed four stroke engine 1878 saw Sir Dougald Clerk complete first twostroke engine (simplified by Joseph Day in 1891)
1891 Panhard-Levassor vehicle with front engine built under Daimler license
Highest expansion ratio recovers most thermal energy Turbines can recover heat energy left over from gas exchange
Energy can be used to drive turbocompressor or fed back into crank train
Source: Advanced Engine Technology
Supercharging
Increases specific output by increasing charge density into reciprocator Many methods of implementation, cost usually only limiting factor
Mechanical Design
Pushrod
OHV (Type 5)
HEMI
2-Valve (Type 5)
SOHC
2-Valve (Type 2)
SOHC
4-Valve (Type 3)
DOHC
4-Valve (Type 2)
DOHC
4-Valve (Type 1)
Desmodromic
Valvetrain
Specific Power =
Combustion Terms
Brake Power Power measured by the absorber (brake) at the crankshaft BSFC - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Fuel Mass Flow Rate / Brake Power grams/kW-h or lbs/hp-h
Thermal Enrichment Fuel added for cooling due to component temperature limit Injector Pulse Width - Time Injector is Open
burn rate, trapped mass, location of peak pressure, etc. The lower the variation the better the stability.
Aerodynamics
Intake manifolds have ducts (runners) that tune at frequencies corresponding to engine speed, like an organ pipe
Longer runners tune at lower frequencies Shorter runners tune at higher frequencies
Tuning increases local pressure at intake valve thereby increasing flow rate Duct diameter is a trade-off between velocity and wall friction of passing charge
Exhaust manifolds tune just as intake manifolds do, but since no fresh charge is being introduced as a result not as much impact on volumetric efficiency (~8% maximum for headers) Catalyst performance usually limits production exhaust systems that flow acceptably with little to no tuning
Tuned Headers
Tuned Headers generally do not appear on production engines due to the impairment to catalyst light-off performance (usually a minimum of 150% additional distance for cold-start exhaust heat to be lost). Performance can be enhanced by 3-8% across 60% of the operating range.
WOT IMEP Exhaust Manifold Comparison
4-2-1 Tubular Header vs 4-1 Close Coupled Cast
1500 1450 1400 0 -15 -30 -45 -60 -75 -90 -105 -120 -135 -150
1200
1600
2000
2400
2800
3200
3600
4000
4400
4800
5200
5600
6000
6400
IMEP 4-2-1 IMEP 4-1 Cast PMEP 4-2-1 PMEP 4-1 Cast
1044.1 1122.8 1188.5 1226.6 1269.2 1290.5 1337.9 1390.1 1445.7 1427 1445.8 1435.4 1411.7 1337.9 1102.5 1162.2 1225.5 1252.3 1248 1262.4 1320.9 1403.6 1403.5 1406.3 1398 1367.2 1294.6 -5.3 -9.7 -12.5 -14.2 -16.8 -19.7 -20.8 -23.0 -26.1 -29.9 -32.0 -38.4 -40.3 -52.3 -54.0 -64.0 -68.6 -78.5 -81.0 -90.8 -89.0 -107.9 -122.8 -136.2 -99.8 -111.5 -119.5
Momentum Effects
Pressure loss influences dictate that duct diameter be as large as possible for minimum friction Increasing charge momentum enhances cylinder filling by extending induction process past unsteady direct energy transfer of induction stroke (ie piston motion) Decreasing duct diameter increases available kinetic energy for a given mass flux Therefore duct diameter is a trade-off between velocity and wall friction of passing charge
Induction process and exhaust blowdown both cause pressure pulsations Abrupt changes of increased cross-section in the path of a pressure wave will reflect a wave of opposite magnitude back down the path of the wave Closed-ended ducts reflect pressure waves directly, therefore a wave will echo with same amplitude
Friction decreases energy of pressure waves, therefore the 1st order reflection is the strongest but up to 5th order have been utilized to good effect in high speed engines (thus active runners in F1 in Y2K) Plenums also resonate and through superposition increase the amplitude of pressure waves in runners small impact relative to runner geometry
450
430
410
390
370
350
Trapped Mass
1200 372
1600 381
2000 373
2400 421
2800 428
3200 402
3600 397
4000 430
4400 454
4800 453
5200 458
5600 460
6000 431
6400 401
Aerodynamics
Losses due to poor aerodynamics can be equal in magnitude to the gains from pressure wave tuning Often the dominant factory in poorly performing OE components If properly designed, flow of a single-entry intake manifold can approach 98% of an ideal entrance on a cylinder head port (steady state on a flow bench)
Aerodynamics cont
Flow Separation
Literally same phenomenon as stall in wing elements pressure in free stream insufficient to push flow along wall of short side radius Recirculation pushes flow away from wall, thereby reducing effective cross-section: socalled vena contracta Simple guidelines can prevent flow separation in ducts studies performed by NACA in the 1930s empirically established the best duct configurations
Aerodynamics cont
Wall Friction
Surface finish of ducts need to be as smooth as possible to prevent tripping of flow on a macro level
Everything from your fluid dynamics textbook applies
Radiused inlets and free-standing pipe outlets Minimize number of bends Avoid S bends if at all possible
Induction Restriction
Air cleaner and intake manifolds provide some resistance to incoming charge Power loss related to restriction almost directly a function of ratio between manifold pressure (plenum pressure upstream of runners) and atmospheric
Exhaust Restriction
Back Pressure Effects on Peak Power - 2.0L SOHC R/T
152 151
150
149
148
147
146
Compression Ratio
The highest possible compression ratio is always the design point, as higher will always be more thermally efficient with better idle quality Knock limits compression ratio because of combustion stability issues at low engine speed due to necessary spark retard Most engines are designed with higher compression than is best for low speed combustion stability because of the associated part-load BSFC benefits and high speed power
Valve Events
Valve events define how an engine breathes all the time, and so are an important aspect of low load as well as high load performance Valve events also effectively define compression & expansion ratio, as compression will not begin until the piston-cylinder mechanism is sealed same with expansion
Spider Plot -
Describes timing points for valve events with respect to Crank Position
Cam Centerline -
Intake closing that is best compromise between compression stroke back flow and induction momentum (retard with increasing engine speed) Early intake closing usefulness limited at low engine speed due to knock limit Early intake opening will impart some exhaust blowdown or pressure wave tuning momentum to intake charge
Earliest intake closing to maximize compression ratio for best burn rate (optimum is instantaneous after TDC) Latest exhaust opening to maximize expansion ratio for best use of heat energy and lowest EGT (least thermal protection enrichment beyond LBT)
Achieve maximum valve lift (max flow usually at L/D > 0.25-0.3) as long as possible (square lift curves are optimum for poppet valves)
Earliest exhaust opening that blows down cylinder pressure to backpressure levels before exhaust stroke (advance with increasing engine speed) Earliest exhaust closing that avoids recompression spike (retard with increasing engine speed)
Torque (ft-lbs)
500 490 480 470 460 450 440 430 420 1600
2000
2400
2800
3200
4000
4400
4800
5200
5600
300
800
240
BMEP SI [kPa]
700
30
40
400
275
300
10
200
100
600
700
0 1200
1600
2000
2400
2800
3200
3600
4000
4400
4800
5200
5600
6000
6400
d Speed [rpm]
Summary
Cylinder Head Ports & Valve Area Valve Events Intake Manifold Runner Geometry Compression Ratio Exhaust Header Geometry Exhaust Restriction Air Cleaner Restriction
Powertrain is compromise
Four-stroke engines are volumetric flow rate devices the only route to more power is increased engine speed, more valve area or increased charge density More speed, charge density or valve area are expensive or difficult to develop therefore minimizing losses is the most efficient path within existing engine architectures Highest average power during a vehicle acceleration is fastest peak power values dont win races
Break
Calibration
What is it?
Optimizing the control system (once hardware is finalized) for drivability, durability & emissions Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Combustion and Control Theory all play in Fortunately race engines have no emissions constraints and use race fuel (usually eliminates any knock) therefore are relatively easy to calibrate
Calibration Terms
Rich F/A F/A greater than Stoichiometry Lean F/A F/A less than Stoichiometry
Lean > 1.0 Lambda
Brake Power Power measured by the absorber (brake) at the crankshaft BSFC - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Fuel Mass Flow Rate / Brake Power grams/kW-h or lbs/hp-h
Thermal Enrichment Fuel added for cooling due to exhaust component temperature limit Injector Pulse Width - Time Injector is Open
94% 92% 90% 88% Spark Held Constant During Fuel Air Sw eep 86% 84% 82% 80% 78% 76% 0.0660
0.0690
0.0720
0.0750
0.0780
0.0810
0.0840
0.0870
0.0900
0.0930
0.0960
0.0990
0.1020
0.1050
0.1080
0.1110
F/A FN 1856 RPM, 70 kPa MAP 4544 RPM, 70 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 98 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 98 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 56 kPa MAP 2688 RPM, 70 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 84 kPa MAP
Alpha-N
Engine Speed & Throttle Angle Engine Speed and MAP/ACT Engine Speed and MAF
Speed-Density
MAF
Alpha-N
Fuel and spark maps are based on throttle angle which is very non-linear and requires complete mapping of engine
Good throttle response once dialed in Density compensation (altitude and temperature) is usually absent needs to be recalibrated every time car goes out
Speed-Density
Fuel and spark maps are based on MAP density of charge is a strong function of pressure, corrected by air temp and coolant temp therefore air flow is simple to calculate
Less time-intensive than Alpha-N, once calibrated is good most common type of control Needs less mapping can do WOT line and midmap then curve-fit air flow (spark needs a little more in-depth for optimal control)
MAF
Fuel and spark maps are based on MAF airflow measured directly
Pressure pulses confuse signal, each application has to be mapped with secondary damped MAF sensor (usually a 55 gallon drum inline) Least noisy signal is usually at air cleaner so separate transport delay controls need to be calibrated for transients and leaks need to be absolutely eliminated
Fuel System
Basic Sensors
Fuel System
Injectors
Volumetric flow rate solenoids, linear relationship between pulsewidth and flow for given pressure delta Battery offset is time necessary to open and close solenoid time is fixed for any voltage Duty cycle is injector on time itll go static above 95% Bernoulli relationship for different pressure deltas allowing differing flow rates for a given injector High impedance injectors have lower dynamic range and lower amperage and thus less heat in controller
Pressure needs to be sufficiently high to prevent vapour lock (>4bar) and low enough that engine can idle In-tank regulation adds least heat but has line-loss as 2 2 flow rate increases, ie fuel pressure changes with flow Manifold-referenced regulation can help injectors achieve higher flow rates at elevated boost or lower 1 flows at low vacuum making calibration more 1 complicated Bernoulli Effect of Fuel Pressure
Pintle Height
P P V
Sensors
A variable-resistance diaphragm with perfect vacuum on one side and manifold pressure on other A heating element followed by a temperature-sensitive element. Heated element is maintained at a constant temperature and based upon the measured downstream temperature the mass flow rate can be determined High resolution for spark advance, less-so for crank speed and with once-per-rev can indicate TDC Low resolution for syncronization for sequential fuel injection and individual cylinder spark Thermistors used for air density correction and startup enrichment
Crank Position
Cam Position
Sensors, cont
Knock Sensor
A piezoelectric load cell that measures structural vibration. Knock is a pressure wave that travels at local sonic velocity and rings at a frequency that is a function of bore diameter (typically between 14-18kHz). When the structure of the engine (typically the block) is hit with this pressure wave it rings as well, but at a frequency that is a function of the structure (ie materials and geometry). A FFT analysis of different mounting positions (nodes not anti-nodes) is necessary to determine the center frequency to listen for knock (which is measured via incylinder pressure measurements) without picking up other structure-borne noise.
Sensors, cont
Compares ambient air to exhaust oxygen content (partial pressure of oxygen). Sensor output is essentially binary (only indicates rich or lean of stoichiometry).
EGO Schematic
Compares partial pressure of oxygen (lean) and partial pressure of HmCn, H2 & CO (rich) with ambient. Gives output from ~0.6 to 2 Lamda.
UEGO Schematic
Calibration Goals
Work, Power & Mean Effective Pressures Knock, Pre-Ignition Burn Rate Wall film
Transients
Knock
Causes of Knock
Knock = f(Time,Temperature,Pressure,Octane) Time Higher engine speeds or faster burn rates reduce knock tendency. Burn rate can come from multiple spark sources, more compact combustion chambers or increased turbulence Temperature Reduced combustion temperatures reduce knock through reduced charge temperatures (cooler incoming charge or reduced residual burned gases), increased evaporative cooling from richer F/A mixtures and increased combustion chamber cooling Pressure Lower cylinder pressures reduce knock tendency through lower compression ratio or MAP pressure Octane Different fuel types have higher or lower autoignition tendencies. Octane value is directly related to knocking tendency
Knock continued
Effects of Knock
Disrupts stagnant gases that form boundary layer at edge of combustion chamber, increasing heat transfer to components and raising mean combustion chamber temp that can lead to pre-ignition Scours oil film off cylinder wall, leading to dry friction and increased wear of piston rings Shockwave can induce vibratory loads into piston pin, piston pin bore and top land - reducing oil film thickness and accelerating wear Shockwave can be strong enough to stress components to failure
Piezoelectric pressure transducers develop charge with changes in pressure Installed in combustion chamber wall or spark plug to measure full-cycle pressures
Pre-Ignition
Effects of Pre-Ignition
Increases peak cylinder pressure by beginning heat release too soon Increased cylinder pressure also increases heat load to combustion chamber components, sustaining the pre-ignition (leading to run-away pre-ignition) Increases loads on piston crown and piston pin Sustained pre-ignition will typically put a hole in the center of the piston crown
Burn Rate
Spark
Closer to MBT the faster the burn with trace knock the fastest Least dilution (exhaust residual or anything unburnable) fastest FA Ratio best rate around LBT Smallest chamber with shortest flame path best (multiple ignition sources shorten flame path) Crank angle time for complete burn nearly constant with increasing engine speed indicating other factors speeding burn rate Mixture motion-contributed angular momentum conserved as cylinder volume decreases during compression stroke, eventually breaking down into vortices around TDC increasing kinetic energy in charge Turbulent Intensity a measure of total kinetic energy available to move flame front faster than laminar flame speed. More Turbulent Intensity equals faster burn.
Transient Fuelling
Liquid fuel does not burn, only fuel vapour Heat from somewhere must be used to make vapour which is why up to 500% more fuel must be used on a cold start to provide sufficient vapour for engine to run (relationship between temperature and partial pressure of fuel fractions) Most of heat during fully warm operation comes from back side of intake valve and port walls
Because of geometry a large portion of fuel wets wall this film travels at some fraction of free stream. Therefore some fuel from every pulse goes into engine and some onto port wall. On a fast acceleration, additional fuel must be added to offset the slowly moving wall film. Opposite true on decels. If injector is positioned far upstream volumetric efficiency increases due fuel heat of vapourization cooling incoming charge, but a large amount of wall is wetted leading to poor transient fuel control
Injector Targeting
Bad Tip Location
Targets Valve
Thermal Enrichment
Durability
Combustion temperatures can reach 4000 deg K and drop to 1800 deg K before Exhaust Valve Opening (EVO) Materials must operate at sufficiently low temperature to maintain strength, so Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) limits must be adhered to for sufficient durability Usually 950 deg C runner temperature is acceptable for a developed package, as low as 800 deg C for undeveloped components may be necessary Primary path for cooling is additional fuel beyond LBT, as heat of vapourization cools the charge before ignition (pressure-charged engines primarily)
Drivability
Throttle Response
Drivers expect some repeatability and resolution of thrust versus pedal position some degree of spark mapping (retard) and pedal to throttle cam can help a drivers confidence Usually least developed and of most importance is tip-in (throttle closed to small opening) where torque can come in as a step change
Closing Remarks
Calibration is compromise
Best spark for drivability may not produce sufficient combustion stability or fuel consumption Best fuelling for drivability is voracious fuel consumer - decel fuel shut off can improve economy by 20% but has tip-in torque bumps without careful calibration
References
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, John B Heywood, 1988 McGraw-Hill The Design and Tuning of Competition Engines Sixth Edition, Philip H Smith, 1977 Robert Bentley The Development of Piston Aero Engines, Bill Gunston, 1993 Haynes Publishing Design and Simulation of Four-Stroke Engines, Gordon P. Blair, 1999 SAE Advanced Engine Technology, Heinz Heisler, 1995 SAE Vehicle and Engine Technology, Heinz Heisler, 1999 SAE
Q&A