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ME 515 Mechatronics: Introduction To Actuators
ME 515 Mechatronics: Introduction To Actuators
11/22/2006
ME 515 Mechatronics
Introduction to Actuators
Asanga Ratnaweera Department of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Engineering University of Peradeniya Tel: 081239 (3627) Email: asangar@pdn.ac.lk
Actuation Systems
Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are responsible for transforming the output of a microprocessor or control system into a controlling action on a machine of device: Most common types of actuators
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Electrical Actuators
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Electrical Actuators
easy to control from mW to MW normally high velocities 1000 - 10000 rpm several types accurate servo control ideal torque for driving excellent efficiency autonomous power system difficult
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DC Motors
The most common actuator in Mechatronic systems is the Direct Current (DC) motor
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Rotary actuators Power range: Fractions of watts to 100s of kW. Power supply by grid, diesel generator, or batteries Easy to control accurately simple Cheap various sizes and packages. limited overloading on high speeds Wear at rubbing surfaces
Advantages:
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Disadvantages:
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Basic Operation
Current flowing through a conductor in a magnetic field induces a force perpendicular to the field and to itself
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Brushed Motor
The stator is the stationary outside part of a motor. The rotor is the inner part which rotates. In the motor animations, red represents a magnet or winding with a north polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a south polariztion. Opposite, red and green, polarities attract.
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The permanent magnet gives a constant value of flux density. For an armature conductor of length L and carrying a current i
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the force resulting from a magnetic flux density B at right angles to the conductor is BiL.
With N such conductors the force is NBiL. The forces result in a torque T about the coil axis of Fb, with b being the breadth of the coil. Thus: T = NBLi = ki i Back emf vb = k v
Kv, back emf constant
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T = kt i =
kt (V k v ) R
i=
V vb V k v = R R
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T = kt i =
kt (V k v ) R
D.C. motors with field coils are classified according to how the field windings and armature windings are connected.
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Series Motor
Starting torque
Torque
Run away
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no load speed
Speed
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Exerts the highest staring torque and has the greatest no-load speed. With light loads there is a danger that a series wound motor might run at a too high speed.
Motor can get damaged if suddenly unloaded run away (ex: belt failure in belt drives)
Reversing the polarity of the supply to the coils has no effect on the direction of rotation of the motor:
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Armature rotates in magnetic field Speed control by: Armature voltage Field Strength Speed proportional to Voltage Torque proportional to current Power=Speed x Torque
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ia Vr
Vr = Ke
V =L
dia + ia R + Vr dt
Torque proportional to
armature current Tr = K ia
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K torque constant Ke back emf constant - Efficiency Tr Magnetic torque Power induced P = Vr ia Power produced P = Tr Ke = K
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If motor inductance L is
negligibly small
1 ia = V R
Tr
K e R
d K B 1 = ia T J dt J J
Can be solved using Matlab Simulink
Load torque T
d + bL dt
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DC Motor Specs
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Torque
no load speed
Speed
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Provides the lowest starting torque, a much lower no-load speed Nearly constant speed for a large range of load conditions To reverse the direction of rotation, either the armature or field supplied must be reversed. Speed control is easy
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Compound motor
Torque Speed
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Compound motor
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The compound motor has two field windings, one in series with the armature and one in parallel. Compound wound motors aim to get the best features of the series and shunt wound motors, namely a high starting torque and good speed regulation
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the separately excited motor has separate control of the armature and field currents and can be considered to be a special case of the shunt wound motor. To reverse the direction of rotation, either the armature or field supplied can be reversed.
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DC motors: Performance
Good DC motors can be made to be efficient in the 90th percentile. Cheap DC motors can be as low as 50%. Other types of effectors, such as miniature electrostatic motors, may have much lower efficiencies still. Most DC motors have unloaded speeds in the range of 3,000 to 9,000 RPM (revolutions per minute), or 50 to 150 RPS (revolutions per second). This puts DC motors in the high-speed but lowtorque category (compared to some other actuators).
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Brushed motors are thermally limited due to the heat dissipation of the motor
The heat generated in the windings must dissipate through the air gap to the magnets, through the case to the outside air or through the shaft
In order to make it more efficient, the windings were placed on the outside (stator), and the magnets were moved to the inside (rotor)
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Brushless DC Motors
A brushless dc motor has a rotor with permanent magnets and a stator with windings. It is essentially a dc motor turned inside out. The control electronics replace the function of the commutator and energize the proper winding.
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no brushes no wearing parts high speeds coils on cover => better cooling excellent power/weight ratio needs both speed and angle feedback more complicated controller From small to medium power (10W 50kW)
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Change in duty cycle changes the average voltage hence current through the motor.
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H-bridge circuit
H-bridge
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Encoder Feedback
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DC Servo Motors
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DC Servo Motors
some gear reduction a position sensor for the motor shaft an electronic circuit that controls the motor's operation high maximum torque allows high (de)acceleration high zero speed torque high bandwidth provides accurate and fast control works in all four quadrants robustness
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Accurate position or velocity control Low noise, high efficiency Cost not too critical Speed and power payoff (gearing)
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Micro-controller
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Logic Level Switches and relays Transistors Linear push-pull stage with op amp
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Stepper Motors
Typical Use: Position Control Relative position (without feedback) Easy to control:
# Steps moved = number of pulses in Desired Velocity Step Rate
Inexpensive Good holding torque No brushes Can lose steps if load or pulse rate too high
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Rotor is a permanent magnet and the stator is an electromagnet Rotor field is switched to create a rotating magnetic field The rotor is made of soft steel (ferromagnetic) Motion is based on the attraction of rotor and stator poles to position with minimum magnetic reluctance which allows maximum magnetic flux.
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There is a center tap on each of two windings. Center taps of the windings are typically wired to the
positive supply The two ends of each winding are alternately grounded to reverse the direction of the field For higher angular resolutions, the rotor must have proportionally more poles.
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Full step sequence showing how binary numbers can control the motor
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A half-step motor has twice the resolution of a full step motor. In full step mode, 4 steps per revolution, 900 per step In half step mode, 8 steps per revolution, 45o per step
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The two windings are wired more simply, with no center The motor itself is simpler but the drive circuitry needed
to reverse the polarity of each pair of motor poles is more complex The drive circuitry for such a motor requires an H-bridge control circuit for each winding
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taps
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Phase A
Phase B
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Stepper motor: rotates fixed number of degrees when given a step signal
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Rotation achieved by applying specific voltage sequence to coils Controller greatly simplifies this
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r = 360/N
In open loop control the controller has to generate a constant frequency pulse train for the desired velocity (vd) in revolutions/sec, over a time period of td
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vd= N/ Vd
Td=Vdtd
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Pull-in torque: maximum torque against which a motor will start, for a given pulse rate, and reach synchronism without losing a step. Pull-in rate: maximum switching rate at which a loaded motor can start without losing a step. Pull-out torque: maximum torque that can be applied to a motor, running at a given stepping rate, without losing synchronism. Pull-out rate: switching rate at which a loaded motor will remain in synchronism as the switching rate is reduced. Slew range: the range of switching rates between pull-in and put-out within which the motor runs in synchronism but cannot start up or reverse.
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More accurately controlled than a normal motor allowing fractional turns or revolutions to be easily done Low speed, and lower torque than a comparable D.C. motor Useful for precise positioning
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AC-motors
Single or three phase motors 100 Watts MW High power high torque applications Brushless, durable, easy to maintain Now fully digital vector controlled
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AC-motors: Types
Synchronous motors
Since the current is alternating, the motor will run smoothly only at the frequency of the sine wave. electric current is induced in the rotating coils rather than supplied to them directly
Induction motors
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AC-motors: Induction
Motors
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AC Induction Motor
The stator windings of an ac induction motor are distributed around the stator to produce a roughly sinusoidal distribution. When three phase ac voltages are applied to the stator windings, a rotating magnetic field is produced. The rotor of an induction motor also consists of windings or more often a copper squirrel cage imbedded within iron laminates. Only the iron laminates are shown. An electric current is induced in the rotor bars which also produce a magnetic field.
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AC Induction Motor
The rotating magnetic field of the stator drags the rotor around. The rotor does not quite keep up with the the rotating magnetic field of the stator. It falls behind or slips as the field rotates. In this animation, for every time the magnetic field rotates, the rotor only makes three fourths of a turn. If you follow one of the bright green or red rotor teeth with the mouse, you will notice it change color as it falls behind the rotating field. The slip has been greatly exaggerated to enable visualization of this concept. A real induction motor only slips a few percent.
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AC-motors: Synchronous
Motors
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Brush free full digital control Requires sophisticated algorithms to control speed (hence recent) Frequency control via power converter (field control) Suitable for high speed and/or high power applications Complex structure, heavy weight
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Moment of inertia
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For optimum performance, the load moment of inertia should approximately satisfy the following condition.
2.5 J m J L / N 2 5 J m
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Jm polar moment of inertial of the motor JL - polar moment of inertial of the load N gear ratio JL/N2 rotor equivalent load inertia
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Torque
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Tm =
TL + J m m N
TL = T f + J L L
{ { { {
Remember power = T
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Power
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Total power requirement is to overcome the friction and power to accelerate the load
P = T f + J
Cost
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Motor with a given inertia , can deliver a wide range of torques, depending upon the magnetic strength Motors with high magnetic strength is always expensive
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